The Relationship Between the Beliefs of Early Childhood Teachers and their Use of Scaffold, Instruction and Negotiation as Teaching Strategies A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Education By Helen Bernstone Department of Sport and Education, Brunei University February 2007 We don't see things as they are, We see them as we are. -Anais Nin (1903-1977) 1 Abstract This study investigates the relationship between the beliefs of early childhood education teachers and their use of the teaching strategies instruction and negotiation in relation to the scaffold process. Consideration of thinking skills and the ability to problem solve through the vehicle of play provided the background to the "research-- focus. The research was undertaken in two differently structured early childhood education centres in New Zealand with a case study design framing the gathering of data through observations and interviews. It is a small qualitative study driven by socio-cultural theory and therefore considered from a social constructivist position. The main findings from observations and interviews revealed that not all teachers had congruency between their beliefs and practice, that instruction could be the only mediation within a scaffolding process and by considering the power relations in the learning and teaching situation, a model of how different teaching strategies could be related to different states of thinking. A key finding was that of a definition of negotiation as a teaching strategy. II Acknowledgements This study is dedicated to those early childhood education teachers who have a consistent desire to improve their practice through questioning and reflexion and understand that as teachers we can never make it perfect because of the individual construction of our own social reality. However we can always make it better. My thanks go to the many people who have provided support over the years but especially to my critical friend Georgina Hickman and my technological mentors, Bill Roche and Lyn Laurenson. I am indebted to the Centre staff who supported me so positively through the gathering of data. Thanks also to my Brunei University colleagues, management and colleagues at Manukau Institute of Technology Auckland, Croydon College of Further and Higher Education London and to family and friends who had faith in my ability to complete the thesis. A special thanks to Ella, Amy, Natalie, Hannah and Cafe Escape for providing a balance in my life. Dr. Alexis Taylor and Dr. Robert Fisher my supervisors at Brunei provided the much needed friendly guidance and support which enabled me to reach this end point successfully. My thanks also to Carol Bark who kept me in touch with Brunei events. III TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I .......................................................................................................... 1 <:)"E!r1IiE!,", ............................................................................................................. 1 1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................ 1 1.1 Factors Prompting the Study ........................................................ 1 1.1.1 Research Focused on Groups ...................................................... 2 1.1.2 My Professional Experience ........................................................ 3 1.1.3 Trialling of Methods: Observation Videoing and Interviewing ....... 4 1.1.4 Literature Related to Teacher Beliefs and Children's Thinking ..... 6 1.1.5 Political Influences ........................................................................ 8 1.2 The Research Focus/Questions ................................................. 12 1.3 Significance of the Study ............................................................ 13 1.4 Terminology ................................................................................ 15 1.5 The Study ................................................................................... 16 CHAPTER II ....................................................................................................... 19 LitE!raturE! RE!"iE!,", (Institutional FOCUSE!d Study) ........................................... 19 2.0 Introduction .......................................................................................... 19 2.1 Defining Thinking Skills .............................................................. 22 2.2 Teaching of Thinking .................................................................. 23 2.3 Metacognition and Language ..................................................... 29 2.4 Influence of Brain Research ....................................................... 40 2.5 The Influence of Teachers' Beliefs on Teaching Behaviours ...... 42 2.6 Teaching Strategies Used by Teachers to Promote Problem Solving and Independent Thinking Skills .................................... 52 2.6.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 52 2.6.2 Problem Solving ......................................................................... 53 2.6.3 Scaffolding .................................................................................. 54 2.6.4 Collaboration and Community of Practice .................................. 60 2.6.5 Co-construction .......................................................................... 62 2.6.6 Instruction and Negotiation ......................................................... 64 2.7 Playas a Vehicle for Problem Solving ........................................ 68 IV 2.8 Summary of this Literature Review ............................................. 75 2.9 Conclusion .................................................................................. 78 CHAPTER III ...................................................................................................... 81 Research Methodology .................................................................................... 81 3.0 Introduction .......................................................................................... 81 3.1 The Research Question ............................................................. 81 3.2 The Research Approach ............................................................. 82 3.3 The Research Methodology ....................................................... 85 3.3.1 Grounded Theory ....................................................................... 86 3.3.2 Critical theory ............................................................................. 87 3.3.3 Feminist Research ..................................................................... 88 3.4 Case Study ................................................................................. 89 3.4.1 Generalisation and Case Study .................................................. 93 3.5 The Case .................................................................................... 94 3.6 The Research Context ............................................................... 95 3.7 Methods of Data Collection ........................................................ 98 3.7.1 Observations ............................................................................ 100 3.7.2 Interviews ................................................................................. 103 3.8 Pilot Study ................................................................................ 107 3.9 The Participants ....................................................................... 108 3.10 Overview of Data Analysis ........................................................ 110 3.11 Tools Used in Analysis ............................................................. 112 3.12 Ethical Considerations .............................................................. 113 3.13 Summary .................................................................................. 115 CHAPTER IV .................................................................................................... 117 Analysis of the Data ....................................................................................... 117 4.0 Introduction ........................................................................................ 117 4.1 The Process of the Analysis of Data ........................................ 117 4.1.1. Analysis of Observation Data ................................................... 119 4.1.2 Analysis of the Interview Data .................................................. 129 4.2 Summary .................................................................................. 139 CHAPTER V ..................................................................................................... 140 Analysis and Discussion ............................................................................... 140 5.0 Introduction ........................................................................................ 140 v 5.1 Findings from the Observation Data ......................................... 140 5.1.1 The Scaffold Process had Several Layers of Definition ............ 140 5.1.2 Instruction as a Teaching Strategy within the Scaffold Process ................................................................................................. 141 5.1.3 Negotiation, the Other Key Word in this Study ......................... 142 5.1.4 Differentiating between Instruction and Negotiation ................. 144 5.1.5 Connections Made between Teaching Strategies and the Balance of Power ..................................................................................