canresult from love. Arthur'sstory is aboutreligion, too, aboutthe relationshipbetween humanity and Godand the tensions this rela- tionshipcan cause. Oneof the manyuniversal questions that writers ofArthurian talesexplore is, Whatis humannature? Are humansbasi- he Many Realms of callyevil or basicallygood? Related questions include, How can humansbe their best?Are externalcontrols the bestsolution to evil? King Arthur Cangoodness be nurtured?The five writers discussed in thisseries havedifferent answers to thesequestions, but theyall usetheArthurian storyto explorethe questionsand answers. Introducing: c . Sir ThomasMalory's approach is perhapsthe mostcom- Le Marte D~rthurby Sir Thomas MaloryIdyOs plexbecause he rarely passesopen judgment on his major charac-ters, all of whom possessboth good and evil qualities.Arthur is a 0/ the King ~Alhed!LoFd Te~~~Q.n ,,7A goodexample. His nature at firstappears to besimilar to thatof his ConnecticutYankee in father,Uther, whose lust for someoneelse's wife led to Arthur'sbirth. c"" c cc" dR L'~' H . h c. Cc WhenArthur desires the wife of KingLot, the lady accedesto hiswishes-and 1'T'1 he Oncean utureKinguyci.'..W ite " c "c c c later bearshim a son,Mordred. Later,when Merlin 'T'1 J.fleL yreoJ.10 cc.rpeus"uy,h L" R Q!)~~on,a~~s"c1,. D ...' c Ccc warnsArthur that the child will destroyhim andhis realm,Arthur ordersall malebabies born in the monthof Mayto be putto death. (Nor is MordredArthur's only illegitimatechild. Malorychronicles ~y do weremember some stories for yearswhile we forget the factthat before his marriageto Guinevere,Arthur hasa son,Borre, othersthe instantwe closethe book, leavethe theater, or turn off the by an earl'sdaughter, Lyonors.) This is a sideof Arthur thatis television?Stories that live tendto be thosethat illuminate something seldomseen. aboutthe humancondition, that nudge us into recognizingourselves But it is onlypart ofthe story. Thissame Arthur marries or thatteach us somethingabout how to live. Attheir heart theyare Guineverefor love,although Merlin hascounseled against it, and universal.While aspectsof thesestories may change to reflectlocal establishesan order of knightscharged "never to do outrageor customsand situations,thetruths theytell remainthe same. murder,always to fleetreason, and to givemercy unto those who Thestory of KingArthur has beentold for nearlyfifteen askmercy. ..and alwaysto helpladies, damsels, gentlewomen, andwidows, centuries.We know the adventuresof Arthur,Guinevere, Lancelot, strengthenthem in their rights,and neverto enforcethem the knightsof the RoundTable, and the ladiesof Camelotfrom video uponpain of death.Also, that no mando battlein a wrongfulquarrel androle-playing games, filins,muSic, and art-as well asfrom all for loveor for worldlygoods." When these precepts are followed, typesof books: mysteries,science fiction, children'sliterature, fan- Arthur'sreign accomplishesmuch thatis good. Yethe setsthe stage tasies,historical novels, romances;ilhd contemporary fiCtion by such for tragedywith his siring of Mordred,and he compoundshis diverseauthors as Iris Murdoch,John Updike,Donald Barthelme, responsibilityby trustingMordred, surrendering his will to Gawain, and AnthonyPowell. TodayKing Arthur is the subjectof doctoral andseeking vengeance on Lancelot.But Mordred is responsiblefor dissertationsand comic books. His storyis one aspectof the the tragedy,too. Howdo wejudge Arthur's (and Mordred's)behav- humanitieswhere scholar and student, expert and novice, can meet. ior? Do we inherita sinfulnature from our parents?Do we carry Onereason the story of Arthurcontinues to betold is that the seedsof our owndestruction within us?Do wecause our own it is at oncetimely and timeless. The legend has always had the tragedies?Although he hasclearly raised these issues, Malory avoids advantageof flexibility.Each teller adds new aspects,making it origi- explicitjudgment, at leastin termsof Arthurhimself. nal and relevantto his or her audience.The story addresses values Guinevereand Lancelotfare differentl~ Malory portrays andideals thathave persisted throughout western civilization, but it Guinevereby turns asjealous, angry, vengeful, and fickle. Yetshe also embracesthe mostimportant human relationships in life. It is lovesLancelot, and Malory deems this her savinggrace, for he says an actionstory, full of adventure,focusing on the relationship of her: "Whileshe lived shewas a true lover,and therefore she had betweenman and man. It is also a lovestory, detailing not only the a goodend." Guineverehas a goodend indeed. After the lastbattle, relationshipsbetween man and womanbut also the conflictsthat sheacknowledges her role in causingthe tragedy,enters a convent, becomesabbess, and diesin greatholiness. Similarl}\ her lover bili~ Forgivenessis almostan afterthought.Tennyson has no solu- Lancelot,too, beginsa religiouslife afterthe destructionof Arthur's tion for thisworld of falliblehuman beings except prayer. Having kingdom. Whenhe dies,a bishopsees him "with moreangels than givenup on thisworld, Tennyson'sattention is fixed on thenext, everI sawmen in oneda~ AndI sawthe angelsheave up Sir whereArthur is receivedlike a returninghero, waiting perhaps to be Lancelotinto heaven,and the gatesof heavenopened for him." reunitedwith Guinevereand perhaps to return. In general,Malory seems very open about the mixed InA ConnecticutYankee in KingArthur's Court,Mark natureof mankind:we perform bothgood and badacts, sometimesknowingly, 1\vainseems to hold two differentand unreconciled views of human sometimesnot. Arthur'sRound Table is destroyed,but nature. Oneview is hopeful,contending that through education manydifferent people (aswell asfate) share responsibility for that humanscan be their bestselves. The otherdeclares that there is no act. Furthermore,the knightsand ladiesdid not alwaysdo the virtu- hope, thatin the end our basestinstincts triumph. Theseviews are ousthing. YetMalory judges most of themgenerousl}\ chronicling illustratednot onlyby the membersof Arthur'srealm whom the and acceptingboth the goodand the bad. Yankeemeets but bythe Yankeehimself. Alfred,Lord Tennyson, in Idylls of the King,perceives the Withinhours of arrivingin Canlelot,Hank Morgan, a situationsomewhat differentl~ Owingto the mixednature of nineteenth-centurysuperintendent of an armsfactol1\ decides that "I humankind,every person is continuallyeither striving to behis best, would bossthat whole countryinside of threemonths; for 1 judged1 angelicself or allowingthe worst, animalisticaspects of his nature would havethe startof the best-educatedman in the kingdomby a full rein. Christ-likeArthur is amodel, sentto bring outthe bestin matterof thirteenhundred years." The Yankee's plans for the child- humankindthrough example and through binding others to him in like residentsof Canlelotinclude a patentoffice, a schoolsystem, the RoundTable: "A gloriouscompany, the flower of men,/ To serve and a newspaper-the essentialsof his civilization.He begins asmodel for the mightyworld, / Andbe the fair beginningof a time." industrialization;he fosters separate denominations to breakthe For a shortwhile Arthur succeeds.Then his kingdomrots from with- hold of an establishedChurch; and he establishesa Man Factol1\ in andis attackedfrom without. Thefailure of his visionlies in the wherepromising independent thinkers are educatedinto realmen. frail natureof his subjects,beginning with his wife andhis bestknight. Tothe Yankee,"Training is everything;training is all thereis to a Guineveredoesn't share Arthur's vision. Shefinds it too person. Wespeak of nature;it is folly; thereis no suchthing as lofty,too ethereal.She confesses that she "would not lookup, or nature;what we call by thatmisleading name is merelyheredity and half-despisedthe height/ Towhich I would not or I could not training. Wehave no thoughtsof our own, no opinionsof our own; climb--- / I thoughtI could not breathein thatfine air, / Thatpure theyare transmittedto us,trained into us." severityof perfectlight- / I yearn'dfor warmthand colorwhich I Intimately,however, the Yankeefails. Whenhe revealsthe found / In Lancelot...." extentof the factories,schools, and otherchanges, Merlin andthe Weakenedthrough Guinevere's and Lancelot'sexample Church(the forcesof superstitionand tradition)unite againsthim. andthrough the machinationsof evil,the knightsfall whenthey get Thepeople he haseducated flee, demoralized by wars and frightened sidetrackedfrom dutyby passion,by marriage,even by the Holy bythe Interdict of theChurch. "Did you thinkyou had educatedthe Grail. Tennysonis adamantabout the needto placeblame for the superstitionout of thosepeople?" the Yankeeis asked. Hank'sfailure downfaI1of Camelot.Most of it faI1son Guinevere'sshoulders.Arthur suggeststhat the effectsof educationon humannature are limited. indictsher, reminding her of the reasonsfor the Tableand Buthis failurealso stems from a flaw in his own charac- describingin detailthe havocshe has wrought: "The childrenborn ter, evidentin his name. like MorganIe Fa}jHank Morgan is fond of of theeare swordand fire, / Redruin, andthe breakingup of laws,/ powerand is morethan willing to useforce to achieveit. His rise to Thecraft of kindredand the godlesshosts / Ofheathen swarming the positionof Bossis initiallyaccomplished through fear and spec- o'er the NorthernSea. .../ For thou hastspoilt the purpose of my taculareffects achieved by gunpowder. Intimately, Hank blows up life." Havingindicted her, however, Arthur forgives her and express- his civilizationand electrocutes