aËtÄÄxé }tÅt|á v{xé âÇ wÉvàxâÜ wÉÇà Äxá ÑÄtÇàxá wx Ät átÄÄx wËtààxÇàx áÉÇà ÅÉÜàxá ⁄ XÜÅt UÉÅuxv~ Ó gÉ Åç Ätàx Ytà{xÜ gÉ Åç wxtÜ `Éà{xÜ gÉ Åç uÜÉà{xÜá tÇw á|áàxÜá gÉ läÉÇÇx tÇw etçtÇ TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I GENERAL INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 1 I.1. MALARIA ................................................................................................................................. 1 I.1.1. General description ......................................................................................................... 1 I.1.2. Life cycle of Plasmodium falciparum ............................................................................. 2 I.1.3. Diagnosis, treatment and prevention ............................................................................ 3 I.1.4. Malaria case in Rwanda ................................................................................................. 5 I.1.4.1. Brief description of the country ................................................................................. 5 I.1.4.2. Malaria in Rwanda ..................................................................................................... 6 I.2. TRYPANOSOMIASIS ................................................................................................................. 8 I.2.1. General description ........................................................................................................ 8 I.2.2. Human African trypanosomiasis ..................................................................................... 9 I.2.2.1. Description .................................................................................................................. 9 I.2.2.2. Life cycle and transmission ........................................................................................ 9 I.2.2.3. Diagnosis, treatment and prevention ...................................................................... 10 I.2.2.4. Trypanosomiasis in Rwanda ..................................................................................... 12 I.3. LEISHMANIASIS ..................................................................................................................... 13 I.3.1. General Description ..................................................................................................... 13 I.3.2. Life cycle and transmission ........................................................................................... 14 I.3.3. Diagnosis, treatment and prevention ........................................................................... 15 I.3.4. Leishmaniasis in Rwanda .............................................................................................. 18 I.4. AMOEBIASIS ......................................................................................................................... 19 I.4.1. General description ...................................................................................................... 19 I.4.2. Life cycle and transmission ........................................................................................... 19 I.4.3. Diagnosis, treatment and prevention ........................................................................... 20 I.4.4. Amoebiasis in Rwanda .................................................................................................. 22 I.5. INFLAMMATION .................................................................................................................... 23 I.5.1. Overview ....................................................................................................................... 23 I.5.2. Polymorphonuclear neutrophil leukocytes................................................................... 24 I.5.3. NADPH oxidase ............................................................................................................. 25 I.5.4. NO synthase .................................................................................................................. 26 I.5.5. Myeloperoxidase ........................................................................................................... 26 I.5.6. Mediators of inflammation ........................................................................................... 28 I.5.7. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) ...................................................................................... 28 I.5.8. Cytokines ....................................................................................................................... 29 I.6. THESIS OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................... 29 1.7. THESIS OUTLINE .................................................................................................................... 30 PART ONE .............................................................................................................................................. 34 CHAPTER II. RWANDAN MEDICINAL PLANTS USED IN THE TREATMENT OF MALARIA .................... 34 II.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 34 II.2. METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................................... 35 II.2.1. Study area .................................................................................................................... 35 II.2.2. Data collection .............................................................................................................. 36 II.3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .................................................................................................... 37 II.4. CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................... 50 II.5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................................... 50 II.6. REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 51 CHAPTER III EVALUATION OF ANTIPLASMODIAL ACTIVITY OF RWANDAN MEDICINAL PLANTS USED IN THE TREATMENT OF MALARIA ......................................................................................................... 53 III.1 In vitro Antiplasmodial Activity of Rwandan Medicinal Plants used in the Treatment of Malaria .......................................................................................................................................................... 53 III.1.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................. 54 III.1.2. Material and methods .................................................................................................. 55 III.1.2.1. Plant material ........................................................................................................ 55 III.1.2.2. Preparation of extracts ......................................................................................... 55 III.1.2.3. In vitro antiplasmodial assays .............................................................................. 56 III.1.2.4. In vitro cytotoxic assay ......................................................................................... 56 III.1.3. Results and Discussion ................................................................................................. 58 III.1.3.1 Mitragyna rubrostipulata ...................................................................................... 59 III.1.3.2. Markhamia lutea ................................................................................................... 59 III.1.3.3 Conyza aegyptiaca ................................................................................................. 59 III.1.3.4. Solanecio mannii ................................................................................................... 61 III.1.3.5. Terminalia mollis ................................................................................................... 61 III.1.3.6. Fuerstia africana .................................................................................................... 61 III.1.3.7. Rumex abyssinicus ................................................................................................ 62 III.1.3.8. Microglossa pyrifolia ............................................................................................. 62 III.1.3.9. Tithonia diversifolia ............................................................................................... 63 III.1.3.10. Zanthoxylum chalybeum ....................................................................................... 63 III.1.4. Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 64 III.1.5. Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................... 64 III.1.6. REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 66 III.2 In vivo antiplasmodial activity of some Rwandan plants used in the treatment of malaria .... 69 III.2.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................