The Arctic Ocean Review PHASE I REPORT (2009-2011) SECOND EDITION ARCTIC COUNCIL Borgir, Nordurslod / 600 Akureyri / ICELAND Tel: +354 461 1355 / Fax: +354 462 3390 Email: [email protected] / Homepage: www.pame.is The Arctic Ocean Review Project PHASE I REPORT 2009-2011 Second Edition1 Acknowledgements: Lead countries Canada, Iceland, Norway, United States and the Russian Federation Acknowledgment of funding and support We would like to gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided to this project from the Norwegian Climate Change and Pollution Agency and the Nordic Council of Ministers. Furthermore, both financial and in- kind support was provided by the lead countries. We would also like to thank all PAME countries, other Arctic Council Working Groups and Permanent Participants to the Arctic Council for their support and contribution in this work. 1 Additional text included within Section 2.3 based on AOR Phase II negotiations, Spring 2013. Table of Contents TABLE OF ACRONYMS FOREWORD CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................................1 1.1 BACKGROUND ................................................................................................................................................1 1.2 OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................................................................................3 1.3 SCOPE AND APPROACH....................................................................................................................................3 1.4 DIMENSIONS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE ARCTIC OCEAN REVIEW ...................................................................6 1.5 REPORT OUTLINE............................................................................................................................................7 CHAPTER 2 - ARCTIC MARINE ECOSYSTEMS...........................................................................................9 2.1 INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................................................................9 2.2 KEY FEATURES OF ARCTIC MARINE ECOSYSTEMS ........................................................................................10 2.2.1 Geography............................................................................................................................................10 2.2.2 Ocean circulation.................................................................................................................................10 2.2.3 Sea ice ..................................................................................................................................................11 2.2.4 Ecological features...............................................................................................................................12 2.2.5 Large Marine Ecosystems (LMEs).......................................................................................................13 2.2.6 Status and trends of the Arctic marine ecosystems ..............................................................................14 2.3 CONSERVATION STATUS OF ARCTIC SPECIES ................................................................................................16 2.3.1 Subspecies and populations .................................................................................................................16 2.3.2 Status evaluation of species .................................................................................................................17 2.3.3 Status of Arctic marine mammals and seabirds...................................................................................18 2.3.4 Status of Arctic birds............................................................................................................................22 2.4 CLIMATE CHANGE.........................................................................................................................................24 2.4.1 The Arctic is warming ..........................................................................................................................24 2.4.2 Climate variability and climate change ...............................................................................................26 2.4.3 Climate impact on the ecosystem .........................................................................................................27 2.4.4 Ocean acidification ..............................................................................................................................28 2.4.5 The ozone layer and ultraviolet radiation............................................................................................29 2.5 ARCTIC POLLUTION.......................................................................................................................................29 2.5.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................................29 2.5.2 Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) ..................................................................................................30 2.5.3 Heavy metals ........................................................................................................................................31 2.5.4 Radioactivity ........................................................................................................................................32 2.6 CONTAMINANTS AND HUMAN HEALTH .........................................................................................................32 2.7 INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITIES AND DEVELOPMENTS..............................................................................................33 2.7.1 Arctic marine shipping.........................................................................................................................33 2.7.2 Oil and gas development......................................................................................................................34 2.7.3 Fisheries...............................................................................................................................................35 2.7.4 Hunting of marine mammals and birds................................................................................................36 2.7.5 Tourism ................................................................................................................................................37 2.7.5 Land-based activities ...........................................................................................................................37 2.7.6 Other marine activities.........................................................................................................................37 Limosa limosa ...............................................................................................................................................40 2.7.7 References ............................................................................................................................................40 CHAPTER 3: GLOBAL INSTRUMENTS AND PROCESSES RELEVANT TO THE ARCTIC MARINE ENVIRONMENT .................................................................................................................................................46 3.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................................46 3.2 THE LAW OF THE SEA ...................................................................................................................................46 3.2.1 Evolution ..............................................................................................................................................46 3.2.2 The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and related processes....................................47 3.2.3 Associated agreements and processes .................................................................................................49 3.3 ENVIRONMENT AND NATURE CONSERVATION ..............................................................................................50 3.3.1 General.................................................................................................................................................50 3.3.2 Biological diversity ..............................................................................................................................51 3.3.3 Chemicals.............................................................................................................................................56 3.3.4 Climate and Atmosphere......................................................................................................................58 3.4 FISHERIES .....................................................................................................................................................61 3.4.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................................61 3.4.2 Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and