The Regulation Of ‘Revenge Porn’ in England And Wales: Are Existing Legal Solutions Effective? by Rosalind Setterfield Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Law Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences University of Surrey Supervisors: Dr Alex Sarch & Dr Marie Newhouse © Rosalind Setterfield 2019 Table of Contents Statement of Originality .......................................................................................................... v Abstract .................................................................................................................................... vi Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................ vii Table of Legislation ................................................................................................................ ix Table of Cases ........................................................................................................................ xiii Chapter 1: Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Research Definition of Revenge Porn .......................................................................................... 3 1.1.1 A Note on Terminology ........................................................................................................ 4 1.2 Background to the Revenge Porn Phenomenon ........................................................................... 5 1.3 The Modern Revenge Porn Problem ............................................................................................ 9 1.4 The Scope of the Abuse and the Extent of the Harm ................................................................. 14 1.5 Legislating for the Problem of Revenge Porn .......................................................................... 20 1.5.1 An International Overview .................................................................................................. 20 1.5.2 Legal Responses to Revenge Porn in England and Wales .................................................. 24 1.5.2.1 The Civil Law .............................................................................................................................. 24 1.5.2.2 The Criminal Law ........................................................................................................................ 27 1.6 Central Thesis and Original Contribution to Knowledge ........................................................... 28 1.7 Methodology ............................................................................................................................... 33 1.8 Research Questions and their Importance .................................................................................. 34 1.9 Research Questions and Chapter Structure ................................................................................. 35 Chapter 2: Theoretical Justifications for Addressing Revenge Porn in the Civil Law Regime ..................................................................................................................................... 38 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 38 2.2 The Aims of Tort Law ................................................................................................................ 41 2.2.1 Theoretical Justifications for the Aims of Tort Law ........................................................... 43 2.3 Economic Analysis (Optimal Deterrence) Theory ..................................................................... 43 2.3.1 Specific Application to Revenge Porn ................................................................................ 49 2.4 Corrective Justice Theory ........................................................................................................... 55 2.4.1 Specific Application to Revenge Porn ................................................................................ 58 2.5 Tort Law, Revenge Porn and ‘Harm’ ......................................................................................... 65 2.6 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 67 Chapter 3: Civil Law Responses to Revenge Porn ............................................................. 70 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 70 i 3.2 The Equitable Remedy of Breach of Confidence ....................................................................... 72 3.2.1 Doctrinal Background and Remedies .................................................................................. 72 3.2.2 Analysis of Three Paradigmatic Categories of Potential Revenge Porn Defendants .......... 75 3.2.3 Normative Analysis ............................................................................................................. 83 3.2.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 87 3.3 The Tort of Misuse of Private Information ................................................................................. 88 3.3.1 Doctrinal Background ......................................................................................................... 88 3.3.2 Analysis of Three Paradigmatic Categories of Potential Revenge Porn Defendants .......... 91 3.3.3 Normative Analysis ............................................................................................................. 98 3.3.4 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 107 Chapter 4: Proposals for Civil Law Reform ..................................................................... 109 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 109 4.2 Proposals for Reform to The Equitable Remedy of Breach of Confidence ............................. 111 (i) Increase Quantum of Damages for Severe Mental Distress .................................................. 111 (ii) Make Punitive Damages Available for Breaches of Confidence ......................................... 115 4.3 Proposals for Reform to The Tort of Misuse of Private Information ....................................... 121 (i) Broaden the Categories Within Which Exemplary Damages Can be Awarded in Tort Law 121 (ii) Incorporate a Category of Privacy Interference for Unwanted Physical Privacy Invasions 128 4.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 136 Chapter 5: Theoretical Justifications for Addressing Revenge Porn in the Criminal Law Regime ................................................................................................................................... 138 5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 138 5.2 The Aims of the Criminal Law ................................................................................................. 139 5.2.1 Theoretical Justifications for the Aims of the Criminal Law ............................................ 141 5.3 Deterrence Theory .................................................................................................................... 143 5.3.1 Specific Application to Revenge Porn .............................................................................. 148 5.3.2 Revenge Porn and the ‘Harm Principle’ ............................................................................ 154 5.4 Retribution Theory .................................................................................................................... 158 5.4.1 Specific Application to Revenge Porn .............................................................................. 167 (i) Culpability.................................................................................................................................... 167 (ii) Social Harmfulness ................................................................................................................. 169 (iii) Moral Wrongfulness ............................................................................................................... 172 5.6 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 174 Chapter 6: Criminal Law Responses to Revenge Porn .................................................... 178 6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 178 6.2 The Protection from Harassment Act 1997 .............................................................................. 182 ii 6.2.1 Background and Scope ...................................................................................................... 182 6.2.2 Analysis of Three Paradigmatic Categories of Potential Revenge Porn Defendants ........ 185 6.2.3 Normative Analysis ..........................................................................................................