This pdf of your paper in Eastern Mediterranean Metallurgy belongs to the publishers Oxbow Books and it is their copyright. As author you are licenced to make up to 50 offprints from it, but beyond that you may not publish it on the World Wide Web until three years from publication (May 2015), unless the site is a limited access intranet (password protected). If you have queries about this please contact the editorial department at Oxbow Books (editorial@ oxbowbooks.com). An offprint from EAST E RN ME DIT E RRAN E AN ME TALLURGY AND ME TALWORK IN TH E SE COND MILL E NNIU M BC A conference in honour of James D. Muhly Nicosia, 10th–11th October 2009 edited by Vasiliki Kassianidou and George Papasavvas Organized by the Department of History and Archaeology and the Archaeological Research Unit of the University of Cyprus © OXBOW BOOKS 2012 ISBN 978-1-84217-453-1 www.oxbowbooks.com Contents Preface by V. Kassianidou and G. Papasavvas vii List of contributors xi Abbreviations xiv 1 Reminiscences: working with Jim Muhly 1 R. Maddin 2 Late Bronze Age copper production in Cyprus from a mining geologist’s perspective 4 G. Constantinou 3 Metallurgical production and trade on Bronze Age Cyprus: views and variations 14 A. B. Knapp 4 Pyrgos-Mavrorachi in Cypriot metallurgy 26 M. R. Belgiorno, D. Ferro and D. R. Loepp 5 Tinker, tailor, farmer, miner: metals in the Late Bronze Age economy at Kalavasos 35 A. K. South 6 Standing on ceremony: the metallurgical finds from Maroni-Vournes, Cyprus 48 R. C. P. Doonan, G. Cadogan, and D. Sewell 7 From regional gateway to Cypriot kingdom. Copper deposits and copper routes in the chora of Paphos 58 M. Iacovou 8 The role of the Apliki mine region in the post c. 1400 BC copper production and trade networks in Cyprus and in the wider Mediterranean 70 N. H. Gale and Z. A. Stos-Gale 9 ‘Reconstructing’ the Enkomi tombs (British excavations): an instructive exercise 83 D. Pilides 10 Metallurgy and metalwork in Enkomi: the early phases 94 V. Kassianidou 11 The Enkomi cup: niello versus kuwano 107 A. Giumlia-Mair 12 Profusion of Cypriot copper abroad, dearth of bronzes at home: a paradox in Late Bronze Age Cyprus 117 G. Papasavvas 13. Cyprus and Crete: the transformation of the Minoan metalworking industry 129 P. P. Betancourt 14. Metallurgy and metalworking in the harbour town of Knossos at Poros-Katsambas 135 N. Dimopoulou 15. Cyprus and Sardinia, beyond the oxhide ingots 142 F. Lo Schiavo 16. On the cessation of local copper production in the Aegean in the 2nd millennium BC 151 Y. Bassiakos and T. Tselios 17. Late Bronze Age Alalakh and Cyprus: a relationship of metals? 162 K. A. Yener 18. The evidence for metallurgical workshops of the 2nd millennium in Ugarit 169 E. Dardaillon 19. The merchants of Ugarit: oligarchs of the Late Bronze Age trade in metals? 180 C. Bell 20. A unique casting mould from the new excavations at Timna Site 30 (Israel): evidence 188 of western influence? E. Ben-Yosef 21. New perspectives on Iron Age copper production and society in the Faynan region, Jordan 197 T. E. Levy, E. Ben-Yosef and M. Najjar 22. Alloying and resource management in New Kingdom Egypt: the bronze industry at Qantir – Pi-Ramesse and its relationship to Egyptian copper sources 215 T. Rehren and E. B. Pusch 23. On ancient tin and tin-bronze in the Asian Old World: further comments 222 V. C. Pigott 24. Just a few rusty bits: the innovation of iron in the Eastern Mediterranean in the 2nd and 1st millennia BC 237 H. A. Veldhuijzen Colour Plates 251 8. The role of the Apliki mine region in the post c. 1400 BC copper production and trade networks in Cyprus and in the wider Mediterranean Noël H Gale and Zofia A Stos-Gale The distinguished contributions of James Muhly to ancient features (internal cooling rims) in some Uluburun ingots, history, archaeology, and archaeometallurgy have embraced which they write ‘could be caused by pouring several batches both traditional and very new approaches to research. Muhly of the metal into a mould to complete an ingot’. This supports long ago perspicaciously advocated that the study of the Late earlier macroscopic observations by Pulak (1998, 196; 2000, Bronze Age Mediterranean metals trade had to begin with 142) of layered textures in the edge of oxhide ingots, which learning all that we could about the copper oxhide ingots, suggested that at least some of the oxhide ingots were especially ‘how they were made, why they were made and finished by multiple pouring. where they were made’ (Muhly 1977, 81). Muhly thereby inspired, and made major contributions to, over 30 years of research in this field. He was also quick to appreciate, and engage with (Muhly 1983), the new field of applying lead Implications for lead isotope provenancing isotope analysis (LIA) to the study of the provenance of Problems might ensue for lead isotope provenancing if copper (Gale and Stos-Gale 1982). Indeed, Muhly (2005, oxhide ingots were made by several pourings of molten 508) was kind enough to describe LIA applied to provenancing copper into the same mould, in particular if the different the copper in oxhide ingots as the second major development pourings came from different batches of copper metal in the field of copper oxhide ingot studies during the past smelted from different ore sources. However, the evidence 20 years, the first being a major increase in the corpus of of the tight coherence of lead isotope analyses of many known exemplars (especially from the Uluburun and different copper oxhide ingots argues against the existence Gelidonya Bronze Age shipwrecks and from Sardinia (Lo of such a problem (Gale and Stos-Gale 2005; Gale 2011). Schiavo 2005)). Nevertheless the conclusion from lead Moreover detailed lead isotope analyses were made by multi isotope analyses that oxhide ingots dating after c. 1400 BC1 collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry from sites throughout the Mediterranean were made from (MC-ICPMS) in Oxford for a number of cores drilled copper from the Apliki mining region in Cyprus (Stos-Gale through the thickness of three different oxhide ingots and et al. 1997; Gale 1999; Gale and Stos-Gale 2005) proved one bun ingot from the Uluburun wreck. Analytical unexpectedly controversial (e.g. Knapp 2000), so a closer procedures and the numerical data were reported by Gale look at the evidence seems appropriate. (2005). In summary, the MC-ICPMS lead isotope data for Another major advance was the recent intensive study cores taken through three Uluburun copper oxhide and one of the metallography and chemical composition of copper bun ingots support that at least some oxhide and bun ingots oxhide ingots from the Uluburun Bronze Age shipwreck were made by the successive pouring of different batches (Hauptmann et al. 2002). From these studies they argued of molten copper into the mould. However all the MC- against the hypothesis of the casting of oxhide ingots directly ICPMS data prove further that the different batches of from a single charge of molten smelted copper metal from copper in a given Uluburun ingot come from the same ore the furnace. They found that there was but weak evidence deposit, which has an isotopic composition identical with that oxhide ingots were made by melting down bun ingots. the earlier thermal ionization mass spectrometric (TIMS) Moreover, Hauptmann et al. (2002) observed microscopic measurements of the lead isotopic composition of surface 70 8. The role of the Apliki mine region in the post c. 1400 BC copper production and trade networks in Cyprus 71 samples from some 300 Uluburun copper oxhide and bun The facts and the problems ingots. Consequently, the evidence derived from these MC- 1) At Oxford we made lead isotope analyses of several ICPMS determinations of the lead isotope compositions of hundred copper oxhide ingots in comparison with ores from samples from cores through Uluburun ingots validates the Cyprus, Sardinia, etc. (e.g. Stos-Gale et al. 1997; Gale 1999; lead isotope provenancing method for determining the ore Gale and Stos-Gale 2005). sources of copper used in making these ingots. 2) We found that this evidence showed that all post c. 1400 BC oxhide ingots were smelted from copper ores from the Apliki ore deposit in Cyprus – this includes ingots Lead isotope analyses of Cypriot ores and fragments from Cyprus itself, Sardinia, Kyme, Mycenae, Bulgaria, Bogazköy, Sarköy, Antalya, Chios, Kommos, Prior to 1995 relatively few lead isotope analyses had been Mochlos, Egypt, the Cape Gelidonya shipwreck, etc. made of ores from Cyprus. Those that existed had mostly 3) However we also found that many other ‘bronze’ been made for geological purposes (e.g. Spooner and Gale artefacts excavated from Cypriot Late Bronze Age sites were 1982; Hamelin et al. 1988), with a few made for archaeological made from other copper ore deposits around the Troodos provenancing (e.g. Stos-Gale et al. 1986). Prior to 1995 there (Stos-Gale and Gale 1994.) This is consistent with the limited existed only 33 lead isotope analyses for Cypriot ores; these direct evidence of LBA exploitation of Cypriot ore deposits, included only one ore from Apliki (donated by Tylecote), such as the proven Bronze Age mine at Ambelikou but this one ore from Apliki had an isotopic composition (Merrillees 1984) and with the excavation of the LBA which overlapped with a number of copper oxhide ingots. primary smelting workshop at the site of Politiko-Phorades In order to increase the number of LIA for reliable samples (Kassianidou 1999).