Humor 1 Funny Selves: Development of the Humor Efficacy and Identity Short Scales (HEISS) Paul J. Silvia, Rebekah M. Rodriguez, Maciej Karwowski Upublished preprint: June 14, 2021 Declarations of interest: none. This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Paul J. Silvia: ORCiD https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4597-328X Rebekah M. Rodriguez: ORCiD https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9836-1175 Maciej Karwowski: ORCiD https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6974-1673 Author Note Paul J. Silvia & Rebekah M. Rodriguez, Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, USA; Maciej Karwowski, Institute of Psychology, University of Wroclaw, Poland. Research materials along with data and analysis files are available at Open Science Framework: https://osf.io/adkp2/. Please address correspondence to Paul J. Silvia, Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, 20402-6170, [email protected]. Humor 2 Abstract Although humor is a universal feature of human communication, people vary widely in how they create and use humor. Guided by a broader model of creative self-beliefs, we developed the Humor Efficacy and Identity Short Scales (HEISS), a pair of 4-item scales measuring humor self-efficacy (“I can” beliefs reflecting confidence about one’s ability to be funny) and humor identity (“I am” beliefs reflecting the centrality of humor ability to one’s self-concept). Using a large sample of English speakers (n = 1842), an item response theory analysis found a suitable range of item difficulty, good item discrimination, and essentially zero gender-based differential item functioning. Three follow-up samples with English (n = 304, n = 400) and Polish (n = 385) speakers found conceptually consistent relationships with humor backgrounds and experiences (e.g., taking classes and holding jobs involving humor), with Big 5 personality traits, and with humor styles and playfulness. Taken together, these scales show promise for research on people’s humor self-concepts and for studies of gendered aspects of humor use, creation, and appreciation. Keywords: humor, self-efficacy, identity, self-concept, creativity Humor 3 1. Introduction Humor is a universal feature of human communication, used for a wide range of social purposes from persuasion to entertainment, aggression to inclusion, and ingratiation to disparagement (Lynch, 2002; Martin & Ford, 2018; Walter et al., 2018; Weinstein et al., 2011). Nevertheless, people vary widely in humor’s many facets, such as the kinds of humor they find funny, their typical goals for using humor in interactions, and their ability to generate funny ideas (Martin et al., 2003; Plessen et al., 2020; Ruch & Heinz, 2019). In the present research, we draw upon the broader study of creativity to examine people’s humor self-concepts—their beliefs about their humor abilities, particularly their humor self-efficacy (“I can” beliefs reflecting confidence about the ability to be funny) and humor identity (“I am” beliefs reflecting the centrality of being funny to their self-concept). In four samples, brief scales—the Humor Efficacy and Identity Short Scales (HEISS)—that measure these two aspects of humor self-concepts were developed and evaluated. 1.1. Creativity and Humor Production The ability to create humor—to come up with ideas and practices that make others laugh—is a growing topic in the psychology of creativity. Humor creation dovetails naturally with popular theories and themes in creativity research (Lu et al., 2019; Perchtold-Stefan et al., 2020; Ruch & Heinz, 2019), which has long been concerned with how people generate ideas that are both new and apt for a particular purpose, audience, or context (Diedrich et al., 2015; Sawyer, 2006). In this view, humor production falls under the broader umbrella of creative cognition. The largest area of research at the intersection of creativity and humor is probably the study of individual differences in humor production: the ability to produce funny ideas (Ruch & Heinz, 2019). Humor production ability has been linked to personality traits (e.g., Openness to Experience, Extraversion, and Right-Wing Authoritarianism; Nusbaum & Silvia, 2017; Silvia, Christensen, & Cotter, 2021), intelligence (e.g., fluid and crystallized intelligence promote humor; Christensen et al., 2018; Kellner & Benedek, 2017), and gender (men show a small Humor 4 advantage; Greengross et al., 2020). Applying a creativity lens to humor production suggests that many influential concepts and models from creativity research might be fruitful for the study of humor as well. In particular, the study of creativity distinguishes between individual differences in underlying creative abilities (e.g., the ability to generate creative responses to laboratory tasks measuring divergent thinking) and in people’s beliefs about their abilities (Kaufman, 2015; Snyder et al., 2020). This long-standing distinction reflects the simple fact that people with the same ability level—be it intelligence, athleticism, or creativity—can nevertheless have different beliefs about their abilities. In creativity research, the study of creative self-concepts has focused on two of these beliefs: creative self-efficacy and creative identity (Beghetto & Karwowski, 2017; Karwowski & Kaufman, 2017). Creative self-efficacy reflects confidence in one’s creative abilities; creative identity reflects the centrality of being a creative person to one’s self-concept. The large literature that has developed around creative self-concepts shows that people’s beliefs about their own creativity play crucial roles in how they select, pursue, and abandon creative goals (Karwowski & Kaufman, 2017; Tierney & Farmer, 2002), consistent with the influential social- cognitive model that undergirds it (Bandura, 1997). The creative self-concepts framework could be adapted to the specific domain of humor. Individual differences in humor production abilities have been widely studied (Nusbaum & Silvia, 2017; Ruch & Heinz, 2019), but little is known about people’s beliefs about their humor abilities. Adapting creative self-concepts for humor yields two parallel concepts. The first is humor self-efficacy, people’s reasonably stable confidence beliefs about their ability to be funny, to make others laugh, and to come up with ideas that are clever, witty, and humorous. The second is humor identity, people’s perceptions of how their humor-related activities, abilities, and goals connect to their overall sense of self. Humor self-efficacy primarily captures confidence beliefs about one’s humor ability (“I can”); humor identity primarily captures the Humor 5 centrality of humor ability to one’s self-concept (“I am”). As the larger social-cognitive literature shows, people’s efficacy and identity beliefs play profound roles in their goals and aspirations, their motivation to achieve them, their reactions to setbacks and barriers, and their eventual success (Bandura, 1997). The concepts of humor efficacy and identity could thus aid in illuminating individual differences in how often and how effectively people use and create humor. For example, as with other abilities, people can be overconfident or underconfident in their humor abilities, and these confidence beliefs could shape if, when, and how people produce humor in their interpersonal interactions. Similarly, people vary in how important it is to them to be a funny person, and the centrality of humor to their identity could shape their preferences for different activities, interaction partners, hobbies, and careers. 1.2. The Present Research In the present research, we translate a model of creative self-concepts to the domain of humor and develop brief scales to assess two fundamental components of people’s humor self- concepts. Using item response theory methods, we developed scales—the Humor Efficacy and Identity Short Scales (HEISS)—to create tools for researchers interested in individual differences in humor self-concepts. Our goal was to create brief scales that could be efficiently incorporated into survey and experimental research and that could stand alone if researchers wished to focus on only one construct. Because gender is a pervasive variable in humor research (Greengross, 2020; Hofmann et al., 2020; Martin, 2014), a particular focus was to develop items with minimal gender-based differential item functioning (DIF) so that researchers could have more confidence that possible gender differences in the scores reflect real underlying trait differences. 2. Study 1 In Study 1, we describe the development of the HEISS, present an item response theory analysis of the items, and evaluate the items for gender-based DIF. Humor 6 2.1. Method 2.1.1. Participants All participants in all the studies reported here provided informed consent, and the research was approved by our institutions’ respective ethics committees. In Study 1, a final sample of 1842 adults—929 women, 913 men—who ranged in age from 18 to 88 years old (M = 35.66 years, SD = 13.81, Mdn = 33) took part. Participants were recruited from the Prolific.co online survey panel and were eligible if they were at least 18 years old, spoke English as a native language, and identified as female or male. The final sample was refined from a larger sample of 2100 people, for an exclusion rate of around 12%. The details of the sample exclusions are in the online supplementary material (OSM). 2.1.2. Development Process An initial item pool of 24 items was