quaternary Article Early Grain Cultivation and Starting Processes in the Japanese Archipelago Shin’ichiro Fujio 1,2,3,4 1 Department of Archaeology, National Museum of Japanese History, Chiba 285-8502, Japan; [email protected] 2 Department of Anthropology, Boise State University, Boise, ID 83525, USA 3 National Museum of Japanese History, 117 Jonaicho, Sakura, Chiba 285-0017, Japan 4 Institute of Archaeological Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China Abstract: This paper presents a specific examination of the introduction of grain cultivation and the processes of development in the Japanese Archipelago. In fact, no definitive archaeological evidence has been found that Jomon hunter–gatherers cultivated grain in the Japanese Archipelago; the earliest potential evidence of grain is a stamp mark of rice on the surface of a final late-Jomon, in about 11th century BC, pottery found at the Itaya 3 site in Shimane Prefecture. Current evidence indicates that the first grain cultivation was started by Jomon people who adopted irrigated wet rice cultivation that had arrived from the Korean Peninsula to northern parts of Kyushu, and gradually spread eastward thereafter. This study specifically examines four regions, including northern Kyushu, Kinki, southern Kanto, and northern Tohoku, in order to investigate the processes of grain cultivation initiation and spread. First, the years during which wet rice cultivation started in each region are estimated based on carbon-14 dating of earthenware types used during that period. Secondly, the timing of the spread of wet rice cultivation has been estimated based on carbon-14 dating of earthenware. Subsequently, differences in the periods between the initiation and dissemination of wet rice cultivation were estimated. Results suggest that dissemination took place over approximately 250 years in northern Kyushu, where wet rice cultivation first started. The time required for adoption decreased gradually as the trend moved eastward. It was estimated to have taken approximately 150 years in Kinki and Citation: Fujio, S. Early Grain 20–30 years in southern Kanto, taking place at about the same time. A factor, significantly contributing Cultivation and Starting Processes in to such differences in timing and development processes among regions, was likely the relationship the Japanese Archipelago. Quaternary between the first farmers who introduced wet rice farming and the indigenous hunter–gatherers who 2021, 4, 3. https://doi.org/10.3390/ lived there. quat4010003 Keywords: bronze age; hunter gatherers; interaction; irrigation system; Jomon people; Korean Peninsula; Received: 19 June 2020 wet rice cultivation Accepted: 5 January 2021 Published: 27 January 2021 Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral 1. Introduction with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affil- Since the last glacial maximum, about 22,000 years ago, rising temperatures in the iations. Japanese archipelago saw the emergence of pottery about 16,000 years ago. Earthenware appeared during the late glacial period [1]. In terms of Japanese archaeology, the Old Stone Age to the Jomon era is indicated by the appearance of earthenware [2]. The temperature rose only slightly during the Younger Dryas period of about 14,000 years ago, then warmed drastically from about 11,000 years ago [3]. This change marked the Copyright: © 2021 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. beginning of the post-glacial period in the Japanese archipelago. In this region, no edible This article is an open access article wild grains grew during the post-glacial period. Major foods sought by Jomon people distributed under the terms and included nuts and other forest plants, forest animals, and seafood [4]. At the Sannai conditions of the Creative Commons Maruyama site in Aomori Prefecture, a chestnut forest (Castanea crenata) existed that was Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// as dense as today’s chestnut gardens [5]. Stable sustenance using chestnuts as a staple creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ food for subsistence is known to have continued for more than 500 years. Archaeological 4.0/). evidence suggests that Jomon people were able to grill and boil chestnuts. Quaternary 2021, 4, 3. https://doi.org/10.3390/quat4010003 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/quaternary Quaternary 2021, 4, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 16 Quaternary 2021, 4, 3 2 of 15 food for subsistence is known to have continued for more than 500 years. Archaeological evidence suggests that Jomon people were able to grill and boil chestnuts. KeijiKeiji Imamura Imamura defined defined the the Neolithic Neolithic culture culture of of the the Japanese Japanese archipelago archipelago as as a a “forest “forest NeolithicNeolithic culture” culture” that that used used forest forest plants plants as as a a major major food, food, in in contrast to the “grassland NeolithicNeolithic culture”, culture”, which which used used grains grains and and livestock livestock as as major major foods foods in in western western Asia Asia [6]. [6]. AboutAbout 4200 4200 years years ago, ago, the the c climatelimate cooled cooled suddenly suddenly and and the the Sannai Maruyama site site was abandoned.abandoned. Jomon Jomon people people switched switched their their subs subsistenceistence emphasis emphasis from from chestnuts chestnuts to to more cold-resistantcold-resistant horse horse chestnuts chestnuts ( (AesculusAesculus turbinata turbinata).). Jomon Jomon people people were were compelled compelled to to go go throughthrough complicated complicated processes, processes, such such as as heat heatinging and and immersion, immersion, to to make make horse horse chestnuts chestnuts edibleedible [5]. [5]. Therefore, Therefore, such such water-exposed water-exposed remains remains are are being investigated continually at at variousvarious locations. locations. In addition to gathering, the Jomon people might have conducted domestication of In addition to gathering, the Jomon people might have conducted domestication of some plants. Soybeans and azuki beans (Glycine soja and Vigna angularis, respectively) are some plants. Soybeans and azuki beans (Glycine soja and Vigna angularis, respectively) are grown on Honshu Island and were collected by Jomon people as early as 10,000 years ago. grown on Honshu Island and were collected by Jomon people as early as 10,000 years ago. Seiji Nakayama and Hiroki Obata confirmed from replica analysis that the wild bean size Seiji Nakayama and Hiroki Obata confirmed from replica analysis that the wild bean size increased gradually over time, approaching the size of modern soybeans and adzuki beans increased gradually over time, approaching the size of modern soybeans and adzuki (Figure1). Nakayama and Obata designated these as Jomon beans, which are smaller than beans (Figure 1). Nakayama and Obata designated these as Jomon beans, which are modern soybeans and adzuki beans, but suggest that they might constitute evidence of smaller than modern soybeans and adzuki beans, but suggest that they might constitute plant domestication by Jomon people [7]. evidence of plant domestication by Jomon people [7]. FigureFigure 1. 1. ChangesChanges in in legume legume size size during during Japane Japanesese archipelago archipelago prehistory prehistory (Modified (Modified fr fromom Figure Figure 101; 101; referred referred from from Hiroki Hiroki ObataObata [7]). [7]). From that experience with beans, Jomon people might have learned that managing plantsFrom would that produceexperience delicious with beans, and largerJomon nuts people or beans.might have Therefore, learned grain that cultivationmanaging plantsarrived would at a time produce when delicious the Jomon and people larger hadnuts already or beans. accumulated Therefore, grain selective cultivation cultivation ar- rivedknowledge at a time and when experience the Jomon over thousands people had of years.already accumulated selective cultivation knowledge and experience over thousands of years. 2. Who Brought Grain Cultivation to the Japanese Archipelago? 2.1. Diffusion from the Korean Peninsula to the Japanese Archipelago Grain cultivation was introduced to the Japanese Archipelago from outside cultures in the late 10th century BC. Ancient Korean people of Bronze-age culture brought wet rice cultivation to northern parts of Kyushu [8]. The wet rice cultivation technique, which Quaternary 2021, 4, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 16 2. Who Brought Grain Cultivation to the Japanese Archipelago? 2.1. Diffusion from the Korean Peninsula to the Japanese Archipelago Quaternary 2021, 4, 3 Grain cultivation was introduced to the Japanese Archipelago from outside cultures3 of 15 in the late 10th century BC. Ancient Korean people of Bronze-age culture brought wet rice cultivation to northern parts of Kyushu [8]. The wet rice cultivation technique, which in- corporatedincorporated irrigation irrigation systems, systems, was was accepted accepted by by hunter–gatherers hunter–gatherers from from Honshu, Honshu, Shikoku, Shikoku, and Kyushu over an approximately 700-year span (Figure2 2).). Figure 2.2. Geography,Geography, ocean ocean currents, currents, and and prehistoric prehistoric sites sites of the of Korean the Korean Peninsula Peninsula and the and Japanese the Japanese archipelago. archipelago. (by Author). (by Author). The Tsushima warm current flows along the western Japanese archipelago; the ChishimaThe Tsushima cold current warm and current the Japanese flows along warm th currente western flow Japanese along the