THE STRUGGLE FOR INDIGENOUS TERRITORY IN THE BRAZILIAN AMAZON By ALINE FABIANA ANGOTTI CARRARA A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2020 1 © 2020 Aline Fabiana Angotti Carrara 2 To all indigenous peoples 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The present study is a result of a journey that, by no means, was accomplished individually. It derives from a collective engagement and is a product of many hands and minds and hearts. To start, the whole Danhimipari community, to whom I have committed a lifetime of love and respect, who have embraced their realities with so much wisdom and taught me to expand myself and my views of the world through a relationship that started in 2001 while seeking “the sacred land below the ground”.. Carolina Rowehö Wereé for 12 years of shining eyes and her father Wedero’wa Wereé for a lifelong friendship. José Ivan Padzawere Wahutu'o, José Robri Umhate and all the schoolteachers and community members who embraced my family and I from sun rise to sunset. My advisor, Robert Walker who has been a great source of knowledge, guidance, support and motivation, since our first interaction by the Tocantins River in the Amazon. My deepest gratitude for his patience and understanding and for always challenging me to move forward and reach my potential. My co-advisor, Cynthia Simmons, whose knowledge and experience has planted many ideas which always germinated into inspiring conversations. My brilliant committee, Christine Overdevest and Stephen Perz for sharing their views and their critical contribution to shaping this work, and for offering guidance through this journey. My cohort from the Department of Geography for all the fun, the laughs, the tears, the hugs through constant exchange and mutual support and help with many different aspects involved in pursuing this research. The professors who have deeply contributed to my intellectual and personal growth: Michael Heckenberger, Susan Paulson, Simone Athaide and Alberto Acosta. 4 The staff from the Department of Geography who kindly and patiently have resolved and worked out many bureaucratic issues: Desiree Price, Rhonda Black, Dr. Jane Southworth and Alexandro Henao. The scholarships and fellowships that gave me financial security: Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) – Science Without Borders, LASPAU (Harvard University), The Rufford Grant (The Rufford Foundation), CLAS Dissertation Award (University of Florida). All my friends who were constantly present, allowing me a safe non-judgmental space to balance my emotional needs. Friends are moments in time and time cannot measure friendship. Finally, I am eternally thankful for my family. My whole lineage, all the way to the unknown roots. My dad for leaving the trace and pointing the way, for guiding from wherever his existence may be. My mom for ballasting my life’s trajectory with her uniquely unconditional love, care, giving and support always. She is the point from where I catch sight of the horizons. Nathália, my one and only sister whose love and acceptance are present in every criticism. And for always being there as my best half. Ritodhi, for stepping on Earth while holding my hand. For walking this incredible journey by my side, even during the times he had to carry me on his own shoulders, and for actively engaging in the materialization of this work with his cozy laughs and admirable intelligence. Arnaldo and Sushweta, for always being there with their healing powers and enormous forgiving heart. And Theo, my infinite source of inspiration and knowledge, for sharing his mom with her own mundane interests. 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................. 4 LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ 9 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................... 10 ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... 13 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 15 Conceptual Model ...................................................................................................... 20 Research Terminology ............................................................................................... 24 2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND .............................................................................. 27 Development History with The March West ............................................................. 27 Indigenous Rights and Policy in Brazil: From Colonial to Modern Times .............. 30 Institutional History of indigenous affairs in Brazil ........................................... 31 The Indigenous Chapter in the Brazilian Federal Constitution (FC/88) ............ 35 Democracy, Neo-Developmentalism and the Commodification of Indigenous Life .................................................................................................................. 40 Thirty Years of the FC/88 and Unfolding Developmentalist Agenda ................ 43 The Progressive Left States ................................................................................ 48 3 BACKGROUND IN THE LITERATURE ............................................................... 55 Place, Space and Territory ......................................................................................... 57 Displacement and Mobility........................................................................................ 62 The Territorializing Power of Indigenous Place-Making .......................................... 64 4 PAN-AMAZÔNIAN STATISTICAL ANALYSIS .................................................. 70 Statistical Analysis: The Data and Spatial Features .................................................. 73 Descriptive Statistic of the Collected Data ................................................................ 74 Statistical Analysis: Logistic Regression ................................................................... 80 5 THE HISTORY OF A’UWE UPTABI TERRITORIALIZATION ......................... 84 The A’uwe Uptabi Pre and Post-Contact.................................................................. 85 Into the 20th Century .................................................................................................. 90 President Vargas and the New State: Exogenous Territorialization .......................... 91 São Marcos Salesian Mission. ............................................................................ 95 Marãiwatsédé – The Last Frontier ...................................................................... 96 Territorialization of the IT: São Marcos Indigenous Reserve ................................. 101 A’uwe, Territorialities and the Ró ........................................................................... 104 6 6 ENDOGENOUS TERRITORIALITY: PLACE-MAKING IN ALDEIA DANHIMIPARI ...................................................................................................... 110 Methodological Choices and Community Engagement .......................................... 112 Focus Groups ........................................................................................................... 114 Oral Histories and Storytelling ......................................................................... 115 Community Mapping ........................................................................................ 116 Surveys .................................................................................................................... 117 Results...................................................................................................................... 118 “We cannot measure pain”: Creation of the IT and the Lure Back .................. 118 The Places of A’uwe Uptabi Space ................................................................. 121 Community building in the Ró .................................................................. 121 Householding in the Rí .............................................................................. 126 Pi’õ Tsiptede: Women Power ........................................................................... 129 Mobile Indigenous Lives .................................................................................. 133 Search 1: Medical intervention ................................................................. 138 Search 2: Job search .................................................................................. 140 Search 3: Usury ......................................................................................... 142 Discussion ................................................................................................................ 144 A’uwe Uptabi Territorialities in Aldeia Danhimipari and Beyond ................. 144 Territorial Aspirations of the Aldeia ................................................................ 146 Extending and Reforming the Ró: Territorializing the Waradzu World .......... 151 7 BEYOND LEGAL-CARTOGRAPHIC STRATEGIES: ITS, TERRITORIALITIES AND THE FUTURE OF AMAZONIA .................................................................. 159 The Limits of a “Legal-Cartographic