University of North Dakota UND Scholarly Commons Theses and Dissertations Theses, Dissertations, and Senior Projects January 2016 The mpI act Of Power Status On Gender Stereotypes, Sexism, And Gender Discrimination Toward Women In The orW kplace And The Career Identity Development Of Women Juemei Yang Follow this and additional works at: https://commons.und.edu/theses Recommended Citation Yang, Juemei, "The mpI act Of Power Status On Gender Stereotypes, Sexism, And Gender Discrimination Toward Women In The Workplace And The aC reer Identity Development Of Women" (2016). Theses and Dissertations. 2088. https://commons.und.edu/theses/2088 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Theses, Dissertations, and Senior Projects at UND Scholarly Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of UND Scholarly Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. THE IMPACT OF POWER STATUS ON GENDER STEREOTYPES, SEXISM, AND GENDER DISCRIMINATION TOWARD WOMEN IN THE WORKPLACE AND THE CAREER IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT OF WOMEN by Juemei Yang BA, University of Conneticut, 2008 MA, Boston College, 2010 A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the University of North Dakota In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Grand Forks, North Dakota December 2016 ii PERMISSION Title: The Impact of Power Status on Gender Stereotypes, Sexism, and Gender Discrimination toward Women in the Workplace and the Career Identity Development of Women Department: Counseling Psychology Degree: Doctor of Philosophy In presenting this dissertation in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a graduate degree from the University of North Dakota, I agree that the library of this University shall make it freely available for inspection. I further agree that permission for extensive copying for scholarly purposes may be granted by the professor who supervised my dissertation work or, in her absence, by the Chairperson of the department or the dean of the School of Graduate Studies. It is understood that any copying or publication or other use of this dissertation or part thereof for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. It is also understood that due recognition shall be given to me and to the University of North Dakota in any scholarly use which may be made of any material in my dissertation. Juemei Yang November 29, 2016 iii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................... vii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... ix CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................. 1 II. LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................... 6 History of Women’s Career Development and Identity .............. 6 Colonial Era (1492-1776) .................................................... 7 The Revolutionary War (1775-1783) and Industrialization ................................................................... 9 Civil War (1861-1865) and its Aftermath ............................ 12 Post-World War I Prosperity and the Great Depression (1900-1930).......................................................................... 13 World War II (1939-1945) .................................................. 15 Contemporary Patterns......................................................... 16 Factors Impeding Career Development for Women in the United States ................................................................................ 18 Gender Stereotypes .............................................................. 18 Sexism .................................................................................. 30 Gender Discrimination ......................................................... 40 Power Status......................................................................... 46 iv Purpose of the Study .................................................................... 51 Hypothesis ................................................................................... 53 III. METHOD .............................................................................................. 55 Participants Demographics .......................................................... 55 Measures ...................................................................................... 61 Design .......................................................................................... 66 Procedures ................................................................................... 67 IV. RESULTS .............................................................................................. 71 Preliminary Analysis Section ...................................................... 71 Hypothesis 1......................................................................... 72 Hypothesis 2......................................................................... 73 Hypothesis 3......................................................................... 75 Hypothesis 4......................................................................... 76 Hypothesis 5......................................................................... 80 Post Hoc Analyses ....................................................................... 88 Main Effects Analysis of International Sample ................... 88 Post Hoc Analysis of Hypothesis 5-Using Non- International Sample ..................................................... 89 V. DISCUSSION ........................................................................................ 91 Discussion of the Results ............................................................ 91 Hypothesis 1......................................................................... 91 Hypothesis 2......................................................................... 93 Hypothesis 3......................................................................... 97 v Hypothesis 4......................................................................... 100 Hypothesis 5......................................................................... 102 Post Hoc Analyses ....................................................................... 104 Summary of Results Discussion .................................................. 105 Limitations ................................................................................... 106 Sampling Methods ............................................................... 106 Sample Demographics ......................................................... 107 Design of Methodology ....................................................... 108 Measurements ...................................................................... 110 Implications ................................................................................. 112 Research Implications .......................................................... 113 Clinical Implications ............................................................ 116 Practical Implications at the Workplace ............................... 117 Summary ..................................................................................... 120 APPENDICES ............................................................................................................... 122 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 135 vi LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Participants Demographics – Combined and for Each Conditions .................... 58 2. Means and Standard Deviations of Scores on the ASI, GDPI, BSRI- Femininity, BSRI-Masculinity, and BSRI-Neutral for High Power Status (N = 46), and Low Power Status (N = 40) ......................................................... 73 3. Means and Standard Deviations of Scores on the ASI, GDPI, BSRI- Femininity, BSRI-Masculinity, and BSRI-Neutral for Male Participants (N = 41) and Female Participants (N = 45) ....................................................... 74 4. Means and Standard Deviations of Scores on the ASI, GDPI, BSRI- Femininity, BSRI-Masculinity, and BSRI-Neutral for Male Vignette (N = 90), and Female Vignette (N = 86) ............................................................ 76 5. ANOVA Results and Descriptive Statistics for ASI by Gender and Power Status of Participants.......................................................................................... 77 6. ANOVA Results and Descriptive Statistics for GDPI by Gender and Power Status of Participants .............................................................................. 78 7. ANOVA Results and Descriptive Statistics for BSRI-Femininity by Gender and Power Status of Participants ........................................................... 80 8. Simple Main Effect Results for Differences between Power Status for Men, and Power Status for Women ................................................................... 80 9. ANOVA Results and Descriptive Statistics for ASI by Power Status of Participants and Gender of the Person in Vignette ............................................ 81 10. ANOVA Results and Descriptive Statistics for GDPI by Power of Participants and Gender of the Person in Vignette ............................................ 82 11. ANOVA Results and Descriptive