The copyright of this thesis vests in the author. No quotation from it or information derived from it is to be published without full acknowledgement of the source. The thesis is to be used for private study or non- commercial research purposes only. Published by the University of Cape Town (UCT) in terms of the non-exclusive license granted to UCT by the author. University of Cape Town The Representation and Mediation of National Identity in the Production of Post-apartheid, South African Cinema by Astrid Treffry-Goatley Thesis Presented for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in Film and Media Studies UniversityUNIVERSITY of OF CAPECape TOWN Town April 2010 Supervisor: Associate Professor Martin Botha Abstract In 1994, South Africa was emancipated from apartheid, and in 1996, a new democratic Constitution was released. This charter envisioned a progressive society and placed emphasis on equality, multiculturalism, reconciliation and freedom. The state targeted the cultural industries, including cinema, to carry this new vision to the nation. The problem, however, was that the production, exhibition and distribution infrastructure inherited from apartheid was not only dominated by Hollywood, but also exclusively catered for the white sector of the nation. This monopolised, racially skewed structure continues to pose an obstacle to the dissemination of progressive identities and the sustainability of local cinema. Through an analysis of relevant film policy, industry structure and specific cinematic texts, this study aims to trace the intersection between the dynamics of national identity representation and South Africa‟s political and economicTown position as a developing nation in the global marketplace. The research presented took place over a period of three years (2007-2010) and incorporated both quantitative and qualitative methods. This project has multiple conclusions: Cape 1) Firstly, the results indicate that the neoliberalof paradigm evident in the national politico- economic agenda has a continued impact on the development of the film industry where funding is scarce, direct intervention is largely avoided and an export orientated approach dominates state-supported production models. 2) Secondly, those who make successful films in this highly competitive environment tend to do so with local,University white or international audiences in mind. 3) Thirdly, the target market of such films tends to curtail the creative self-expression of the artist, with there being specific expectations when it comes to budget, cast, characterisation, narrative content and structure, language and aesthetics. 4) Fourthly, this research indicates that an alternative production model has developed: one that can potentially grant filmmakers greater freedom in cinematic production and dissemination. It functions with less capital, less outside assistance and has a greater focus on the local market. It remains to be seen, however, whether the demographics of the ii audience and the filmmakers themselves, can expand to include a greater percentage of the black majority, who have been historically excluded from South African cinematic production and consumption. 5) Finally, the results suggest that the national identities represented to audiences on screen are influenced not only by a filmmaker’s personal biases and interpretations, but also by wider socio-economic forces, filmmaking conventions and the production conditions specific to the film at hand. University of Cape Town iii Declaration I declare that this thesis is my own unaided work. It is submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Cape Town. It has not been submitted before for any other degree or examination at any other university. Signature removed Astrid Treffry-Goatley 16th April 2010 University of Cape Town iv Acknowledgements I extend my gratitude to a host of individuals who have supported me on this journey: To the Mellon Foundation, for their generous financial sponsorship of this doctoral research. To my academic supervisor, Associate Professor Martin Botha, who has been an exceptional source of inspiration, gentle support and guidance. To the multitude of film industry professionals, in particular Mike Dearham, Ian Gabriel, Ross Garland and Helen Kuun, for their enthusiastic participation in and contribution to this project. To my family, whose kindness, encouragement and support were invaluable in this process. To my dear aunt Una Allis, for her much-appreciated assistance in this project. To Tulio de Oliveira, you are the light of my life. I truly appreciate your love, patience and keen interest in this project. University of Cape Town v Contents Title Page ………………………………………………………………………………. i Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………… ii-iii Declaration …………………………………………………………………………….. iv Acknowledgements ……………………………………………………………………. v Contents Page ………………………………………………………………………….. vi-ix List of Tables ………………………………………………………………………….. x List of Abbreviations ………………………………………………………………….. xi-xii Chapter One: Background, Rationale and Objectives 1.1. Background ……………………………………….................................. 1 1.1.1. From Apartheid to Democracy …………………………......................... 1 1.1.2. State Policy Post-apartheid…………………………………………....... 2 1.1.3. Consequences for the Development of the Post-apartheid Film Industry 4 1.2. Rationale ………………………………………...................................... 6 1.3. Objectives………………………………………...................................... 9 1.3.1. Post-apartheid Film Industry Analysis………………………………...... 9 1.3.2. Economics, Politics and Culture in Transnational Cinematic Production 10 1.3.3. Dynamics of Representation ………………………………………….... 10 1.3.4. Film Industry Transformation ………………………………………...... 11 1.4. ThesisUniversity Structure…………………………………………………………. of Cape Town 11 Chapter Two: Concepts, Theories, Methodology and Analysis 2.1. Chapter Overview…………………………………................................. 13 2.2. Key Concepts ………………………………………............................... 13 2.2.1. Introduction ……………………………………….................................. 13 2.2.2. Nation ………………………………………........................................... 13 2.2.3. National Identity ………………………………………………………... 16 2.2.4. National Cinema ………………………………………………………... 16 2.2.5. Globalisation and Neoliberalism ……………………………………...... 18 2.2.6. The Film Industry ………………………………………………………. 19 2.2.7. Representation ………………………………………………………...... 20 2.2.8. Culture and Multiculturalism …………………………………………... 21 vi 2.2.9. Authenticity…………………………………………………………….. 23 2.2.10. Cinema………………………………………......................................... 24 2.3. Theoretical Background ………………………………………………... 24 2.3.1. Introduction ……………………………………………………………. 24 2.3.2. Challenging „Truisms‟ …………………………………………………. 25 2.3.3. Authenticity and Authority ……………………………………………. 26 2.3.4. The Role of Fantasy and Realism in African Cinemas…………………. 27 2.3.5. State Ideological Apparatuses …………………………………………. 28 2.3.6. Towards a Politico-economic Understanding of Post-apartheid Cinema 31 2.3.7. Ideological Interpellation and National Identity ………………………. 32 2.3.8. The Insides and Outsides of South African Cinema …………………… 34 2.4. Research Methodology ………………………………………………… 36 2.4.1. Introduction ……………………………………………………………. 36 2.4.2. Theoretical Research ………………………………………………….. 37 2.4.3. The Discourses that Surround the Films ……………………………… 41 2.5. Empirical Research …………………………………………………….. 42 2.5.1. Introduction ……………………………………………………………. 42 2.5.2. Qualitative Interviews …………………………………………………. 43 2.5.3. Question Design and Application …………………………………….. 44 2.5.4. Empirical Work and Ethical Considerations …………………………. 47 2.6. Analytical Framework ………………………………………………… 48 2.6.1. Introduction ……………………………………………………………. 48 2.6.2. Industry Analysis: Post-apartheid Cinema and Hollywood ……………. 49 2.6.3. Film Finance and Budget Categories ………………………………….. 49 2.6.4. Analysis of Case Studies ……………………………………………… 51 2.7. Analysis of Interview Data ……………………………………………. 54 2.7.1. Introduction ……………………………………………………………. 54 Chapter Three: Overview of Cinematic Development under Apartheid 3.1. Chapter Overview………………………………………………………. 56 3.2. Historical Overview (1910 – 1994) …………………………………….. 56 Chapter Four: TheUniversity Post-apartheid Film Industryof Cape Town 4.1. Chapter Overview ……………………………………………………… 62 4.2. Post-apartheid Film Industry …………………………………………... 63 4.2.1. Introduction …………………………………………………………… 63 4.3. State Support in the Post-apartheid Film Industry …………………….. 65 4.4. Exhibition, Distribution and Audience Development ………………….. 68 4.5. The National Film and Video Foundation (NFVF) ……………………. 73 4.5.1. NFVF Vision …………………………………………………………… 73 4.5.2. NFVF Action in the Industry ………………………………………….. 78 4.6. The Industrial Development Corporation (IDC) ………………………. 86 4.7. Production for Export: Economic Considerations …………………… 88 4.8. Production for Export: Cultural Considerations ………………………. 93 4.9. The Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) …………………………. 98 4.10. Conclusion ……………………………………………………………… 101 vii Chapter Five: Digital Cinema: An Alternative Model for Cinematic Production and Consumption? 5.1. Chapter Overview ……………………………………………………… 102 5.2. Low Production Budgets and Digital Filmmaking …………………….. 102 5.3. Low Budget Productions and the Business of Filmmaking ……………. 104 5.4. Digital Technology and Big Screen Exhibition Mechanisms ……….. 105 5.5. Small Screens, Film Exhibition and Digital Technology …………….. 112 5.6. Conclusion …………………………………………………………….. 116 Chapter Six: Textual Analysis of Drum 6.1.