The House of Oduduwa: An Archaeological Study of Economy and Kingship in the Savè Hills of West Africa by Andrew W. Gurstelle A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Anthropology) in the University of Michigan 2015 Doctoral Committee: Professor Carla M. Sinopoli, Chair Professor Joyce Marcus Professor Raymond A. Silverman Professor Henry T. Wright © Andrew W. Gurstelle 2015 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I must first and foremost acknowledge the people of the Savè hills that contributed their time, knowledge, and energies. Completing this dissertation would not have been possible without their support. In particular, I wish to thank Ọba Adétùtú Onishabe, Oyedekpo II Ọla- Amùṣù, and the many balè,̣ balé, and balọdè ̣that welcomed us to their communities and facilitated our research. I also thank the many land owners that allowed us access to archaeological sites, and the farmers, herders, hunters, fishers, traders, and historians that spoke with us and answered our questions about the Savè hills landscape and the past. This dissertion was truly an effort of the entire community. It is difficult to express the depth of my gratitude for my Béninese collaborators. Simon Agani was with me every step of the way. His passion for Shabe history inspired me, and I am happy to have provided the research support for him to finish his research. Nestor Labiyi provided support during crucial periods of excavation. As with Simon, I am very happy that our research interests complemented and reinforced one another’s. Working with Travis Williams provided a fresh perspective on field methods and strategies when it was needed most. We were supported by an outstanding team of field assistants. One could not ask for a more dedicated and enthusiastic team. Our research on the ground was made easier by the institutional support of the Directorate de Patrimoine Culturel as well as the Département d’Histoire et Archéologie at the ii Université d’Abomey-Calavi. In particular, my thanks go to Mr. Richard J. V. Sogan, Mr. Calixte Biah, Dr. Obarè Bagodo, and Dr. Didier N’dah. I must also acknowledge the unflagging support of my dissertation committee. Carla Sinopoli was the best chair a dissertator could want, as she provided advice on all aspects of running an archaeological research project. Her insights on effectively conducting and communicating research has helped me improve as a scholar. Henry Wright’s vast knowledge of survey was instrumental in crafting my research design, and I often reflect on the pearls of wisdom he would casually share as we worked in the Museum of Anthropology. Joyce Marcus encouraged me to make extensive use of the rich ethnographic and historical record for Shabe, as well to keep my eye on how the pieces of my research fit together into a larger narrative. Ray Silverman was always there to provide pratical advice on working closely with the royalty and elite of African traditional political institutions. I am also grateful to the excellent mentors I’ve had outside of the University of Michigan: Sissel Schroeder, Ron Schirmer, Phil de Barros, Ann Stahl, and J. Cameron Monroe. My fellow graduate students at the University of Michigan provided support in innumerable ways, both big and small. This dissertation would not have been manageable without the guidance of the Africanists that came before me: Stephen Dueppen, Daphne Gallagher, Cameron Gokee, Amanda Logan, and Anne Compton. I am especially grateful to Amanda Logan for guiding me through my first field seasons in West Africa. My thanks as well go to my cohort-mate, Ashley Lemke, as well as Casey Barrier, Alice Wright, Colin Quinn, Howard Tsai, Geoffrey Hughes, and all my other colleagues in the Department of Anthropology and the Museum Studies Program that supported and, at times, challenged my interests in political economies, archaeology, and the African past. iii My research was supported financially by a Doctoral Dissertation Improvement Grant from the National Science Foundation (BCS 1322558) and a Fellowship for Doctoral Research in Museums from the University of Michigan Museum Studies Program. Additional grant support was received from the University of Michigan through the Rackham School of Graduate Studies, the departments of Anthropology and Afroamerican and African Studies, the Museum of Anthropological Archaeology, and the African Studies Center. Finally, none of this would have been possible without the love of Sarah and Asher Gurstelle. They supported me on every leg of this journey, even when it took me away from them for many long months. Their belief in me and in this research was with me always. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii LIST OF TABLES x LIST OF FIGURES xii LIST OF APPENDICES xxiv ABSTRACT xxvi CHAPTER I. Introduction 1 A. Ọba Adetutu Onishabe Joins Facebook 1 1. Digital Frontiers 1 2. West African Kingdoms and Long-term Continuity 7 B. The Growth of States in West Africa 11 1. The State in Africa 11 2. Historical Perspectives on West African States 12 3. Archaeological Perspectives on West African States 15 C. The Shabe Kingdom in the West African Political-Economic Mosaic 23 v 1. Investigating the Shabe Past 23 2. Dissertation Outline 27 II. The Frontiers of Empire 31 A. Imperial Entanglements during the Atlantic Age 31 1. The Atlantic Economy 31 2. Internal African Frontiers 34 3. Wealth in People 35 4. Frontiers, Coasts, Interiors 36 5. The Savanna and the Forest 38 B. The Primacy of Ile-Ife and Divine Yoruba Kingship 45 1. Odùduwà 45 2. Power in the Ife Dynastic Field 47 3. Ile-Ife and the Crowned Kingdoms 50 4. Ile-Ife and Benin 52 C. Yoruba Ethnogenesis and Expansion 54 1. The Alaafin 54 2. Oyo Imperialism 55 3. The Invention of Yoruba 63 III. Landscape and Change in Shabe 66 A. The Savè Hills and Its People 66 1. The Shabe Landscape 66 2. Shabe Lineage 72 3. Shabe Ritual 80 vi 4. Shabe Economy 85 B. The Shabe Kingdom 92 1. The Onishabe 92 2. A Crowned Kingdom 94 3. The Two Kings of Shabe 101 C. The Complicated History of Shabe 104 1. The Early History of Shabe 104 2. The Later History of Shabe 107 IV. The Savè Hills Archaeological Research Project 113 A. The Direct-Historical Approach 113 1. Upstreaming 113 2. Oral Histories 124 3. Archaeological Research 126 B. Reconnaissance Survey 131 1. Study Zone 131 2. Survey Methods 136 3. Problems of Participation 142 C. Transect Survey 145 1. Survey Methods 145 2. Atenro Tract 147 3. Fiditi Tract 149 D. Test Excavations 152 1. Excavation Methods 152 vii 2. Stratigraphic Profile Units 156 3. Feature Exploration Units 158 4. Radiocarbon Dating 160 V. The Shabe Archaeological Landscape 164 A. The Early Shabe Period (1600-1700 CE) 164 1. Settlement Pattern 164 2. Subsistence 179 3. Craft Production 182 4. Exchange 185 5. Political-Economic Organization 186 B. The Middle Shabe Period (1700-1830 CE) 188 1. Settlement Pattern 188 2. Subsistence 206 3. Craft Production 209 4. Exchange 211 5. Political-Economic Organization 213 C. The Late Shabe Period (1830-1894 CE) 217 1. Settlement Pattern 217 2. Subsistence 228 3. Craft Production 228 4. Exchange 231 5. Political-Economic Organization 232 D. The European Colonial Period (1894-1960 CE) 234 viii 1. Settlement Pattern 234 2. Subsistence 237 3. Craft Production 240 4. Exchange 241 5. Political-Economic Organization 242 VI. The Evolution of Shabe Kingship 245 A. Kingship and Settlement in the Save Hills 245 1. Centralizing Power 245 2. Sources of Legitimacy 257 3. Competing Political Institutions 261 B. The Ongoing Transformation of the Shabe Kingdom 264 1. The Northern Landscape 264 2. New Frontiers 269 APPENDICES 272 BIBLIOGRAPHY 452 ix LIST OF TABLES TABLE IV.1 Sites documented through the reconnaissance survey were assigned to one or 141 more periods derived from oral history. IV.2 AMS radiocarbon dates from sites in the Savè hills area, performed at the 163 NOSAMS Laboratory, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Dates are calibrated with the OxCal v4.2 program using the IntCal 13 calibration curve. Sites S12-022 and Odo Akaba were excavated independently by Nestor Labiyi (see Gurstelle et al. in press). V.1 Area of Early Shabe period sites based on surface artifact scatters. 179 V.2 Artifact classes and subclasses present at Early Shabe period sites. 183 V.3 Area of Middle Shabe period sites based on surface artifact scatters. 206 V.4 Artifact classes and subclasses present at Middle Shabe period sites. 210 V.5 Area of Late Shabe period sites based on surface artifact scatters. 228 V.6 Artifact classes and subclasses present at Late Shabe period sites. 230 A.1 Surface feature classes and subclasses present at all sites. Artifact scatter areas 276 are given in ha and fortification lengths are given in km. A.2 Artifact classes and subclasses present at all sites. Surface and excavation 278 contexts are separated for sites where excavations took place. At S12-035, Phase II contexts are all zone 1 contexts from U12-002, U13-006, and U13-007. Phase I contexts are all other zones from all excavations. B.1 Counts of body sherds from archaeological sites in the study area. 397 B.2 Counts of diagnostic sherds from archaeological sites in the study area. 407 x B.3 Pipe bowl fragments from archaeological sites in the study area. 416 C.1 Lithic artifacts of different manufacturing techniques, materials, and forms 420 recovered from sites in the study area. D.1 Ferrous artifacts of different types and forms recovered from sites in the study 431 area. E.1 Glass vessel shards of different colors, vessel types, and manufacturing 442 techniques from archaeological sites in the study area.