From Nahda to Exile: A History of the Shawam in Egypt in the Early Twentieth Century Hussam Eldin Raafat Ahmed Institute of Islamic Studies McGill University Montreal, Canada June 2011 A thesis submitted to McGill University in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Arts Hussam Eldin Raafat Ahmed 2011 Abstract After important intellectual contributions to the Arab Nahda, the Syro-Lebanese of Egypt (the Shawam) underwent a far-reaching process of French acculturation. This process culminated in their cultural alienation from mainstream Egyptian society, and became a major reason for their departure from Nasserite Egypt in the sixties. Unlike previous narratives dealing with the history of the Shawam in Egypt, which underscored static identitarian choices as the driving force behind their cultural alienation, my thesis situates their adoption of French language and culture in the wider context of the Egyptian francophonie. This relatively unknown francophonie thrived in pre- revolutionary Egypt and was fully embraced by Egypt’s urban cosmopolitan society. Despite the British occupation, French was the language of culture, finance, the press, justice and administration until the regime change. Using a more context-based approach, this thesis explores details of daily practices and experiences to discern the conditions in which the Shawam made their choices. I turn to their educational policies and appropriation of Egypt’s prestigious French schools to assess the role played by these schools in their deep French acculturation. I also examine the vibrant francophone literary circles and salons, which flourished in Cairo during the interwar period, where they were particularly visible. Shawam intellectuals had not disappeared from Egyptian intellectual life, but had limited their activity to the much smaller, and much more powerful, francophone one. I contend that their cultural alienation was not the result of an innate separateness between Egyptians and them, but was contingent on historical factors, pertaining both to the community and its land of adoption. ii Résumé Après leur collaboration précieuse au projet de la Nahda arabe, les Syro-Libanais d’Egypte (les chawâms) se sont tournés de plus en plus vers la langue et la culture françaises. Cette adoption démesurée de la langue française au détriment de la langue arabe a engendré leur éloignement culturel de la grande majorité de la société égyptienne. Elle devient même une raison principale de leur exode de l’Egypte dans les années 1960. Si la plupart des récits historiques ayant abordé le sujet des chawâms d’Egypte trouvent dans l’identité de ceux-ci (différents de par leur origine et leur religion) l’explication ultime de ce phénomène, je constate que cette hypothèse demande d’être nuancée. Je propose de mettre leur aliénation dans le plus grand cadre de la francophonie égyptienne, mal connue même aujourd’hui. Pendant un siècle et demi et malgré l’occupation britannique, le français demeurait la langue de la culture, les finances, la presse, la justice et l’administration, jusque’ au changement de régime et la crise de Suez. Pour ce faire, j’étudie en grand détail les expériences et les pratiques de tous les jours pour mieux discerner les circonstances dans lesquelles les chawâms ont fait leurs choix culturels. J’examine leurs politiques de scolarisation et leur appropriation des écoles françaises prestigieuses ayant joué un rôle principal dans cette acculturation. De surcroit, ce mémoire analyse de très près les cercles et les salons littéraires francophones du Caire durant l’entre-deux-guerres, où les chawâms étaient actifs et pleinement visibles. Loin d’avoir disparu de la vie intellectuelle égyptienne, ils avaient approprié la scène francophone, plus restreinte mais très puissante. Je soutiens que plusieurs agents historiques, liés à la fois à l’Egypte et aux chawâms, ont contribué à cette aliénation culturelle. iii Acknowledgements I would first like to thank everyone at the Institute of Islamic Studies, McGill University for their support and encouragement. The librarians and administrative staff, especially Ms. Adina Sigartau and Ms. Karen Moore, have been very patient and helpful with my endless questions and requests, always with a smile. My peers are largely responsible for an enriching collegial environment at the Institute, with all their thoughts, ideas and our many discussions. Professors Michelle Hartman and Setrag Manoukian from Islamic Studies and Professor Nancy Partner from the History Department know how much I appreciate their sincere interest in my academic progress and the pleasure I took in being their student. I am very grateful to the Institute for the Graduate Fellowship Award, and to the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada for the generous CGS Master’s scholarship. It is very hard to find the right words with which to thank Professor Laila Parsons. She has been the ideal supervisor, and it has been a great privilege working with her. Truly dedicated to her students, she is incredibly generous with her immense knowledge, time and feedback. Her crucial questions have made me think and rethink many of my ideas, while her meticulous comments and remarks have continuously pushed me for more clarity and precision. Without her guidance and patience I do not see how I could have come this far. The kindness of many people made my trip to the archives in Cairo extremely rewarding and enjoyable. From the Collège de la Sainte Famille I would like to thank Père Henri Boulad for his interest, recommendations, and for sharing some of his personal recollections with me. The librarian, Père Jacques Masson, has suggested many sources that proved pertinent to my research. From the Dominican Institute of Oriental Studies, I am very grateful to Père Emilio Platti for his time and the books he offered me, and many thanks go to Professor Dalal Adib for all her support, discussions and recommendations. The staff at both institutions was very kind and helpful. Ms. Elodie Gaden has been very generous sharing her experience as a researcher in Cairo. The McGill University Arts Graduate Student Travel Award helped make this trip possible. iv I would also like to express my gratitude to friends and relatives who have been there for me. In particular I would like to thank Kevin Jones for his unfailing support and encouragement throughout months of research and writing. He has read everything and helped me improve it in many ways. His intellectual stimulus, feedback, assistance with some translations from French and unmatchable sense of humor have been invaluable. Of course, none of this would have been possible without the unconditional love of my family. My sisters Sarah and Hend have been wonderfully supportive. Their faith, thoughtfulness and humor have been a great source of motivation. As for my mother, Naglaa, she knows nothing I say here can describe how deeply she inspires me. Her gracefulness, her values and her parenting continue to influence my thinking, worldview, approach and work habits. Her love and encouragement have made it all happen. Finally, I owe my interest in the history of the Shawam in Egypt to the remarkable story and rich world of my late grandmother, Saada. She has all my love and respect. v Table of Contents Introduction …………………………………….………………………………. 1 Chapter 1 The Shawam in Egypt: A Historical Oversight…………………… 19 De-Arabization……………………………………………………. 20 The Shawam in Egypt: A Narrative of Failed Integration………... 24 Reinstating Egypt’s Francophone Cosmopolitan Society in the Narrative of Failed Integration……………………………………. 31 French Education in Pre-Revolutionary Egypt: A Short-term Privilege…………………………………………………………… 38 The Shawam, Egyptians and Others………………………………. 44 Conclusion………………………………………………………… 49 Chapter 2 French Influence in Egypt: An Untainted Colonialism…………… 51 France: The Model of Choice of an ‘Awakened’ Egypt………….. 52 Modern Egypt and France: A Long History………………………. 54 The British Occupation and a Legitimate Francophilia…………... 56 Egypt’s Urban Communities: The Adoption of French as a First European Language……………………………………………….. 59 Egypt, What Have You Done With Your French?........................... 73 Conclusion………………………………………………………… 76 Chapter 3 The Shawam and Cairo’s Francophone Literary Circles and Salons……………………………………………………………… 77 Proliferation of Francophone Lectures……………………………. 78 Amy Kher…………………………………….…………………… 81 Nelly Zananiri and Al-Diafa………………………………………. 85 Dar El-Salam of Mary Kahil and the Cercle catholique de la jeunesse syrienne………………………………………………….. 90 Other Francophone Groups……………………………………….. 94 Francophone Circles in the Early 1930s: An Insight Into Cairo’s Cosmopolitan Society……………………………………………... 99 Intellectual Interests……………………………………………….. 106 A Problematic “Egyptianness” …………………………………… 112 Conclusion………………………………………………………… 116 Conclusion …………………………………….………………………………. 118 Bibliography …………………………………….………………………………. 121 vi Introduction “To be French-Speaking in Cairo before the 1952 Revolution was to belong to a group of people who felt themselves deeply rooted in Cairo as a place, and probably believed that their lives would be spent in that city until death disseminated them to their various cemeteries, distinguished only by religion or rite… It was to think of Cairo as home, but to believe that Paris was the navel of the world.” - Magdi Wahba, “Cairo Memories,” 1978. The Suez crisis in 1956 closed the curtain on the privileged position France had occupied in Egypt