Pontifical University Saint Patrick’s College, Maynooth County Kildare, Ireland CONSCIENCE IN CONTEXT A study of the nature of conscience relating to its historical development and existential environment Stuart Patrick Chalmers A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Theology in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Doctoral Degree in Theology (PhD) under the supervision of Rev. Prof. Dr. D. Vincent Twomey, SVD February 2009 I appeal to you, therefore, brothers and sisters, by the mercies of God, to present your bodies as a living sacrifice, holy and acceptable to God, which is your spiritual worship. Do not be conformed to this world, but be transformed by the renewing of your minds, so that you may discern what is the will of God - what is good and acceptable and perfect. (Romans 12:1-2) Contents Acknowledgements...........................................viii Introduction.......................................................................................................................ix Chapter One: Setting the Scene - Fragmentation 1. Introduction............................................................................................................1 2. MacIntyre’s Analysis of Moral Fragmentation.................................................. 3 3. Porter’s Analysis of Fragmentation in Moral Theology.....................................7 4. Pinckaers and the Fragmentation of Freedom..................................................... 9 5. Summing up the Evidence..................................................................................20 6. Corresponding Fragmentation in the Notion of Conscience...........................22 7. Conclusion........................................................................................................... 27 Chapter Two: Conscience in Classical Culture and Sacred Scripture 1. Introduction.........................................................................................................29 2. Semantic Background to the Use of Conscience in the New Testament. 30 3. Conscience in the Writing of Saint P aul...........................................................43 4. Jewish and Hellenistic Influences on the Notion of Syneidesis...................... 49 5. Later New Testament Usage..............................................................................54 6. Conclusions......................................................................................................... 56 Chapter Three: Medieval Investigations on Conscience 1. Patristic Sources and Medieval Application.................................................... 59 2. Early Scholastic Definitions of Synderesis................ 66 2.1 Ratio Superior, Ratio Inferior and Synderesis.............................................69 3. The First Treatise on Conscience - Philip the Chancellor..............................72 4. Saint Bonaventure.......................................................................... 77 4.1 Epistemological Background........................................................................ 78 4.2 Reason and Will Entwined - Bonaventure on Conscientia and Synderesis................................................................................................ 79 5. Saint Albert the Great......................................................................................... 91 5.1 Epistemological Background........................................................................ 93 5.2 Patristic Influences on Scholastic Moral Epistemology..............................95 5.3 St Albert’s Early Analysis of Synderesis and Conscientia .................98 5.4 The Summa de Creaturis and the Commentary on the Sentences 100 5.5 Later Writings.............................................................................................107 6. Saint Thomas Aquinas...................................................................................... 112 6.1 The Commentary on the Sentencess ............................................................113 6.2 Quaestiones Disputatae de Veritate............................................................124 6.3 The Summa Theologica .............................................................................134 7. Conclusions....................................................................................................... 142 Appendix 1 A Shift in the Understanding of Conscience: The Influence of the Manuals . 144 Appendix 2 A Comparison of Key Commentary Passages Containing Synderesis............... 154 Chapter Four: Issues on the Nature and Function of Conscience 1. Introduction....................................................................................................... 157 2. The Question of Deduction in Conscience.......................................................158 2.1 Theories of Deduction and the Nature of the Practical Syllogism 160 2.1.1 Formal Rules Theory....................................................................... 161 2.1.2 Content-Specific Rule Theory.........................................................162 2.1.3 Mental Models Theory.................................................................... 163 2.1.4 The Practical Syllogism.................................... 164 2.2 Deduction Alone?...................... 166 2.2.1 Reason - The Question of Connaturality......................................171 2.2.2 Reason - The Question of the Creativity and Imagination in Conscience.................................................................. 177 2.2.3 A Place for Emotion in Conscience?..............................................182 2.2.4 Intuition in Conscience........................................... 188 2.2.5 Grace and the Question of Discernment in Conscience 191 2.3 Hopelessly Flawed Thinkers - Hopelessly Flawed Doers?.....................202 2.3.1 Errors of Function..................................................................... 205 2.3.2 Errors of Content............................................................................. 207 3. The Content and Purpose of Synderesis.......................................................... 213 3.1 Context or Content?.................................................................................... 214 3.2 Synderesis as Ontological Conscience......................................................218 v 3.2.1 Josef Pieper on Truth and Being as the Foundation for Morality.....................................................................................221 3.2.2 Joseph Ratzinger on Conscience as the Capacity to Know the Truth.............................................................................. 227 3.3 What Kind of Content?............................................................................ 242 3.3.1 The Nature of First Principles of the Practical Order................. 243 3.3.2 Synderesis as Content or Context? An Attempt at Resolution . 251 4. Conclusion......................................................................................................... 252 Chapter Five: Conscience and Virtue 1. Introduction.......................................................................................................253 2. Constitutive Elements of Virtue .........................................................258 2.1 Virtue as H abitus.........................................................................................259 2.2 Other Elements of Virtue............................................................................ 264 2.2.1 The Origin of Virtue.......................................................................264 2.2.2 Further Classifications of Virtue....................................................265 2.2.3 Connection or Competition among Virtues?............................... 266 3. Conscience and Particular Virtues................................................................... 271 3.1 Prudence.......................................................................................................271 3.1.1 Prudence as Perception of the Truth — No Room for Error or Uncertainty?................................................................................. 274 3.1.2 Conscience and Prudence.............................................................. 280 3.2 Conscience and Moral Virtues....................................................................293 3.2.1 Justice................................ 295 3.2.2 Conscience and Justice.................... 298 3.2.3 Temperance and Fortitude............................................................. 301 3.3 Grace and Virtuous Living................................... 306 3.3.1 Graced Virtue - A Change in Perspective for Conscience..........308 3.3.2 The Virtue of Faith........................................ .......................... 310 3.3.3 The Virtue of Hope........................................................................ 312 3.3.4 The Virtue of Love (Charity)....................................................... 317 4. Conclusion - Coming into the Light: Connatural Conscience...................... 323 Chapter Six: Conscience and the Call to Holiness 1. Introduction.......................................................................................................... 326 2. Ascesis - A Purification of Intent........................................................................331 3. Conscience and Prayer......................... ............................................................. 335 3.1 Conscience and Prayer