Copyright by Deborah Lynn Morowski 2008 The Dissertation Committee for Deborah Lynn Morowski certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: Prevailing Over Prejudice: A Story of Race, Inequity, and Education in Gonzales, Texas Committee: O. L. Davis, Jr., Supervisor Sherry Field Mary Lee Webeck Norvelle Northcutt Matthew Davis Prevailing Over Prejudice: A Story of Race, Inequity, and Education in Gonzales, Texas by Deborah Lynn Morowski, B.A.; M.Ed. Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Texas at Austin August 2008 Dedication To my husband Pete, without whose love and support this effort would not have been possible. To my sons Peter and Mike whose patience and encouragement were invaluable. Acknowledgements A special thanks to my husband, Pete, who never wavered in his love and support of my studies or his belief in the completion of this project. Thank you to my sons, Peter and Mike, who endured endless discussions of my research and reading, yet always listened and provided encouragement. An additional thank you to Mike, for sharing his photographic skills. Thank you to Dr. O. L. Davis, Jr. and his wife Joan for their kindness. Their support was instrumental in the completion of this endeavor. The former students and teachers of Edwards School welcomed me into their homes and shared many memories of their lives and school days. Their information added richness to this project that never could have been obtained from ledgers and census data. Without their assistance, this project would not have come to fruition. Thank you to Betty Harrison who introduced me to the administration of the Gonzales Independent School District. I would also like to thank Steve Ebel, Superintendent for Gonzales ISD, for his assistance in providing access to district records. Additionally, I would like to thank Pat Mosher and the staff of the Gonzales County Archives for their assistance with records. Thank you to all of my friends and colleagues who discussed the project and asked thought provoking questions. Finally, for my dissertation committee who gave their time and knowledge to guide me to completion of this work, I am eternally grateful. v Prevailing Over Prejudice: A Story of Race, Inequity, and Education in Gonzales, Texas Publication No._____________ Deborah Lynn Morowski, Ph.D. The University of Texas at Austin, 2008 Supervisor: O. L. Davis, Jr. This dissertation traces the history of Edwards High School in Gonzales, Texas, from its origins in the late 1800s through its closure in 1965 and situates Edwards within the larger framework of secondary schooling for African-Americans in Texas. Although more than two hundred high schools for African-Americans existed in Texas for some period by 1947, little is known about these institutions, especially those located in small towns. Schooling for African-Americans following the Civil War was irregular and normally consisted only of elementary grades. As more schools became available, black students received an inequitable share of resources for their education and they did not share in the groundswell of high schools available to white students. Many of the high schools that became available to African-Americans during the first part of the twentieth century were located in urban areas. Little is known of the secondary institutions for African-Americans in the small towns of Texas. This study serves to recount the story of one such school. vi The study pays particular attention to the students, teachers, and curriculum of Edwards High School, focusing on the years between 1935 and 1965, the year the school closed due to desegregation. Archival materials provided information on student demographics, enrollment and attendance patterns, as well as student participation in activities. Oral history interviews offered a glimpse into the lived experience of those who attended Edwards High. Teachers’ certification records and salary data informed an understanding of Edwards High School’s faculty. The study sheds light on the relationship between teachers and students and between faculty and the larger African- American community in Gonzales. The curriculum of Edwards High changed over time. Changing state classification and accreditation standards provided the impetus for these changes. This examination of Edwards High School informs a greater understanding of secondary education for African-Americans in Texas. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables ......................................................................................................... xi List of Figures....................................................................................................... xii List of Illustrations............................................................................................... xiii INTRODUCTION 1 Purpose, Methodology, and Perspective..................................................................1 Overview of Existing Research ...............................................................................5 Primary Sources.......................................................................................................6 State Archival Documents ..............................................................................7 Minutes of the Board of Trustees Meetings....................................................8 Student Records ..............................................................................................9 Teacher Certification Records ........................................................................9 Newspapers...................................................................................................10 Oral Histories................................................................................................11 Miscellaneous Documents ............................................................................11 Organization of the Dissertation ............................................................................12 CHAPTER 1: INEQUITY AND EDUCATION IN TEXAS 15 Legal Underpinnings of Black Education in Texas ...............................................18 The Nineteenth Century................................................................................19 Twentieth Century ........................................................................................24 Growth and Change in Black Education................................................................27 1880 – 1920: The Early Years ......................................................................27 1920-1940: The Interwar Years....................................................................36 Catalysts for improved black education........................................................42 1940-1965: Toward Desegregation...............................................................48 viii Summary and Conclusions ....................................................................................57 CHAPTER 2: UNEQUAL PLAYING FIELDS: AFRICAN-AMERICAN EDUCATION IN GONZALES, TEXAS 60 Antebellum Gonzales.............................................................................................61 1880-1920: The Early Years..................................................................................66 1920-1940: The Interwar Years.............................................................................76 The Quest for Improved Educational Resources ..........................................84 1940-1965: Toward Desegregation........................................................................86 The Price of Equity .....................................................................................102 Summary and Conclusions ..................................................................................119 CHAPTER 3: WE ARE THE GOPHERS 123 Students of the 1930s...........................................................................................124 Students in the 1940s ...........................................................................................127 Students of the 1950s...........................................................................................134 Standardized Testing...................................................................................136 Student Life.................................................................................................139 Students of the 1960s...........................................................................................143 Summary and Conclusions ..................................................................................149 CHAPTER 4: “THEY MADE SURE WE LEARNED” 153 Texas Teachers.....................................................................................................154 Education, Certification, and Salaries.........................................................154 The Teachers of Gonzales....................................................................................166 Education, Certification, and Salaries.........................................................166 Teachers and Students.................................................................................177 Teachers and the Community .....................................................................182 ix Summary and Conclusions ..................................................................................184