THE GREAT SOUL AND THE GREAT HEART: MOHANDAS GANDHI AND HERMANN KALLENBACH IN SOUTH AFRICA by Danielle P. Smith, B.A. A thesis submitted to the Graduate Council of Texas State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts with a Major in History December 2015 Committee Members: Leah Renold, Chair Audrey McKinney Bryan Glass COPYRIGHT by Danielle P. Smith 2015 FAIR USE AND AUTHOR’S PERMISSION STATEMENT Fair Use This work is protected by the Copyright Laws of the United States (Public Law 94-553, section 107). Consistent with fair use as defined in the Copyright Laws, brief quotations from this material are allowed with proper acknowledgment. Use of this material for financial gain without the author’s express written permission is not allowed. Duplication Permission As the copyright holder of this work I, Danielle P. Smith, refuse permission to copy in excess of the “Fair Use” exemption without my written permission. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to offer my humble gratitude to the members of my committee, Dr. Leah Renold, Dr. Audrey McKinney, and Dr. Bryan Glass. Each member provided not only their expertise in their respective fields, but also extremely important and useful insights into the process of creating and compiling knowledge. Without them, this project would not have been possible. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................... iv ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... vi CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................1 II. SURVEY OF THE HISTORY AND INTERACTION BETWEEN GANDHI AND KALLENBACH ..............................................................................15 III. LELYVELD’S THESIS AND REACTIONS TO IT .....................................26 IV. HOW THE BRITISH EMPIRE ADDRESS SAME-SEX SEXUALITY AND WHAT THAT MEANS FOR GANDHI ..................................................36 V. THE CULTURAL, RELIGIOUS, AND PHILOSOPHICAL INFLUENCES ON GANDHI AND KALLENBACH ......................................................60 VI. GANDHI’S WRITING STYLE AND SEXUALITY ....................................86 VII. SOCIOLOGICAL MODELS DEFINING GANDHI AND KALLENBACH’S RELATIONSHIP ....................................................108 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...........................................................................................................118 v ABSTRACT An outcry erupted shortly after the publication of Joseph J. Lelyveld’s biography Great Soul: Mahatma Gandhi and His Struggle With India. The book was banned in India prior to publication because Indian politicians felt the book described Mohandas Gandhi having a homosexual affair with a male friend, Hermann Kallenbach. This thesis explores the origin of this outcry. It then considers the historical and cultural contexts of Gandhi and Kallenbach’s friendship in order to assess the validity of a homosexual affair between the two men. vi I. INTRODUCTION Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist and former executive editor of the New York Times, Joseph J. Lelyveld, wrote a biography of Gandhi, Great Soul: Mahatma Gandhi and His Struggle With India. On the day of its official release, March 29, 2011, it was banned by a legislative vote in Gujarat, Gandhi’s home state in India. Narendra Modi, who was the leader of the legislative body and is the current Prime Minister of India, explained the decision: The writing is perverse in nature. It has hurt the sentiments of those with capacity for sane and logical thinking. This attempt to defame Mahatma Gandhi by the publisher has come under severe criticism not only in Gujarat but from all corners of India. Mahatma Gandhi is an idol not only in India but in the entire world. While his life -- dedicated to the welfare of the mankind -- has been an inspiration, the author has hurt the sentiments of crores of people.1 The ban was initiated by a belief that Lelyveld’s book postulated a sexual affair with a male associate, architect Hermann Kallenbach. Part of this perception claims that after leaving his wife Gandhi lived with Kallenbach for two years in South Africa.2 Lelyveld responded to the outcry by Indian politicians by claiming the ban was based on reviews of the book, rather than the book itself. In defending his work, Lelyveld said that his book was “responsible,” “sensitive”, and “admiring of Gandhi and his struggle for social justice in India.”3 Lelyveld claimed he felt that his book was seen “as if it [was] some kind of sensationalist 1 “Gujarat govt bans Lelyveld’s book on Mahatma Gandhi”, The Times of India, March 30, 2011, accessed 2 Prakash Joshi & Sanjeev Shivadekar, “State may ban book on Gandhi”, The Times of India, March 30, 2011, accessed October 15, 2015, http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/pune/State-may-ban-book-on- Gandhi/articleshow/7821944.cms?referral=PM. 3 “Gandhi book ban ‘shameful’, says author Joseph Lelyveld”, DNA India, March 30, 2011, accessed October 15, 2015, http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-gandhi-book-ban-shameful-says-author-joseph- lelyveld-1526591. 1 pot boiler.”4 Lelyveld said in a later interview, Now if you think love has to be sexual, love between two men can only exist if it's sexual, then I guess this was sexual, but if you look at what the two men actually said, and at their efforts in their time together to repress any hint of sexual urges, I think you'll find that at least I don't suggest that it was bisexual. The passages that I quote that so offend people can be found in Volume 96 of the collected works of Mahatma Gandhi printed by the government of India and they've been in the public domain since at least 1994.5 Lelyveld identified a review by British historian Andrew Roberts as the catalyst of the outcry in India. Roberts’s review was published in the Wall Street Journal three days prior to Great Soul’s release. Lelyveld said that Roberts “used some of the material in the book to trash Gandhi.”6 Roberts began his review with the claim that Lelyveld had provided enough information that the reader could discern that Gandhi was gay: Joseph Lelyveld has written a generally admiring book about Mohandas Gandhi, the man credited with leading India to independence from Britain in 1947. Yet "Great Soul" also obligingly gives readers more than enough information to discern that he was a sexual weirdo, a political incompetent and a fanatical faddist—one who was often downright cruel to those around him.7 The objective of this study is to inquire into the validity of the accusation that Gandhi had a homosexual affair with Kallenbach. This accusation was reported in subsequent reviews and articles based on Lelyveld’s characterization of Gandhi’s friendship with Kallenbach and Roberts’s review of Great Soul. This study considers excerpts from Gandhi’s letters to Kallenbach mentioned in Lelyveld’s book that led Roberts and others to believe that Lelyveld was insinuating that the relationship between Gandhi and Kallenbach was of a 4 “Gandhi book ban ‘shameful’, says author Joseph Lelyveld”, DNA India, March 30, 2011. 5 Corey Flintoff, “Gandhi Biography Causes Furor In India”, NPR, April 4, 2011, accessed October 15, 2015, http://www.npr.org/2011/04/04/135121195/gandhi-biography-causes-furor. 6 Ibid. 7 Andrew Roberts, “Among the hagiographers”, Wall Street Journal, updated March 26, 2011, accessed February 10, 2015, http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703529004576160371482469358. 2 sexual nature. It also provides analysis of Gandhi’s letters and his close relationships. The thesis will show evidence that the media reports that Gandhi had a homosexual relationship with Kallenbach are based on both a misquotation of one of Gandhi’s letters and an interpretation of the relationship that ignores the personal, cultural, and historical context of their relationship. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, often referred to as the Mahatma, or great soul, has become a symbol of peace and equality in western media. He is known for his leadership of non-violent satyagraha (soul force) campaigns to give Indians political equality in South Africa and later to release India from the British Empire in the first half of the twentieth century. Many people around the world associate concepts of unity and love with Gandhi, but fewer are aware of his life and work. Gandhi’s biographers often treat him in a hagiographical manner, focusing on his choices to not react to physical violence or his urging of Indian society to include every caste into the political process. More specific topics, such as Gandhi’s business relationships with industrialists like G.D. Birla, are often obscured in academia, thus reaching a very limited popular audience. Popular views of Gandhi focus on his reputation as a peacemaker. In the western world as well as in India, Gandhi has become a pop culture symbol who reflects peaceful notions, which may or may not be connected to his life’s work or ideals he espoused. Historical memory of the facts of Gandhi’s leadership has faded, creating a romanticized popular culture image of Gandhi. Nearly seventy years after his assassination, Gandhi has become an enigmatic, mythologized, cultish figure. Quotes falsely attributed to Gandhi, such as “be the change you want to see in the world” adorn subculture-inspired Internet 3 memes that demonstrate the blurring of Gandhi’s image.8 These images contrast