I give permission for public access to my Honors paper and for any copying or digitization to be done at the discretion of the College Archivist and/or the College Librarian. Signed_____________________________________________ Peter Finch Zanca Date __________________________ Electoral College Reform and the Two-Party System: Four Case Studies in Electoral College Reform Peter Finch Zanca Department of Political Science Rhodes College Memphis, Tennessee 2010 Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Bachelor of Arts degree with Honors in Political Science ii This Honors paper by Peter Finch Zanca has been read and approved for Honors in Political Science. Dr. Michael Nelson Department of Political Science Project Advisor ___________________________________ Dr. Stephen H. Wirls Department of Political Science Department Chair - Second Reader ____________________________________ Dr. Timothy S. Huebner Department of History Extra-Departmental Reader ______________________________________ iii Contents Signature page ii Contents iii Abstract iv Introduction 1 The Birth of the Electoral College 4 The Twelfth Amendment 13 The Lodge-Gossett Amendment 26 The Celler Amendment and the Bayh Amendment 40 The National Popular Vote Plan 58 Conclusion 78 Appendices 82 James Wilson‟s Proposed Intermediate Electoral System 82 Committee of Eleven‟s Proposal for Executive Selection 82 Excerpt from Article II, Section 1 of the U.S. Constitution 83 Twelfth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution 85 The Lodge-Gossett Amendment – Senate Joint Resolution 2 86 The Celler Amendment – House Joint Resolution 681 88 The Bayh Amendment – Senate Joint Resolution 1 90 “Agreement Among the States to Elect the President by Nationwide Popular Vote” 92 State Action on National Popular Vote Plan in 2009 95 Bibliography 97 iv Abstract Electoral College Reform and the Two-Party System: Four Case Studies in Electoral College Reform Peter Finch Zanca Since the ratification of the U.S. Constitution, the electoral college has become one of its most controversial provisions. Beginning in 1800, members of Congress have submitted hundreds of amendments to replace the electoral college – far and away more than any other topic. Despite all these attempts, the Twelfth Amendment represents the only successful reform. If electoral college reform has been such a popular idea over such a long period, why have reform movements so often ended in failure? This paper examines four major efforts at altering the electoral college: the Twelfth Amendment of 1804, the Lodge-Gossett Amendment of 1950, the Celler-Bayh Amendments of 1969 and 1970, and the National Popular Vote plan that began in 2006. While each of these reforms advocates a different substitute for the electoral college, the politics surrounding each movement demonstrate major similarities. Each movement gained momentum from potential crises in preceding presidential elections, and support for each proposal tended to develop along partisan lines. Even with the support of the majority party, however, factionalism within that party – either along regional or ideological lines – has been one of the major causes of failure among these proposed reforms. 1 Introduction The method of selecting the American President has been a controversial issue as long as the office has existed. During the Constitutional Convention of 1787, few problems vexed the delegates more than determining how the executive would be chosen. After the convention vacillated between legislative selection and direct popular election, the electoral college emerged as a product of compromise between the convention‟s feuding interests. Both on paper and in the minds of the Framers, the electoral college effectively reconciled the shortcomings of other methods of selection. Within two decades, however, the Framer‟s electoral innovation came under heavy scrutiny as the elections of 1796 and 1800 demonstrated the system‟s propensity for manipulation and controversy. Since those elections, the electoral college has become the subject of more constitutional amendment proposals than any other topic. Rarely has a session of Congress concluded without the introduction of at least one resolution for electoral college reform. While the number of such proposals is no less than 500, only one – the Twelfth Amendment – has successfully navigated the Constitution‟s amendment procedure. If reforming the electoral college has been such a popular idea, why have reform movements ended in failure almost uniformly? Reformers‟ reasons for advocating change have been vast. Many critics have focused on the electoral college‟s potential to produce an “electoral misfire,” in which a candidate wins the election without winning even a plurality of the national popular vote. Others have criticized the Constitution‟s contingency plan that sends the election to the House of Representatives when no candidate receives a majority of electoral votes. Additional debates have centered on who benefits from the electoral college system: 2 small states, large states, minority groups, etc. Furthermore, the unit-vote – or winner- take-all – system of allocating electoral votes has led to harsher criticism of the electoral system and campaign strategies. Perhaps the longest – though not always the most prevalent – crusade has been the effort to ban the electoral college in favor of a purer democratic approach, such as direct election. Although some of these complaints are as old as the institution itself, electoral college reform has not enjoyed constant or consistent popularity throughout its history. On the contrary, movements for reform have only punctuated certain moments in American political history. These moments are typically marked by crises or perceived crises in presidential elections. Unsurprisingly, electoral controversies provide electoral reform movements with excellent momentum. Nevertheless, not every electoral crisis in American history has catalyzed the effort for electoral college reform. What appear to set these particular crises apart from others are two types of issues. Threats to the legitimacy of the election comprise the first type of issues. If there is any perception that the authenticity of the presidential election has been or could be compromised by backroom deals, extortion, or general corruption, a movement to reform or replace the electoral college can be sure to follow. The second type of problem, which is not exclusive of the first, consists of plans to undermine the two-party balance of presidential politics through the manipulation of the electoral college system. When a third party initiates a plan to manipulate the electoral college in order to elicit policy concessions from a major party, calls to reform the electoral system become louder, whether the plan is successful or not. Many of the electoral crises that have presented these problems have provided fairly compelling reasons to reform the electoral system. Nevertheless, the Twelfth 3 Amendment remains as the only successful modification of the electoral college. While any number of reasons could explain the continuous failure of reform proposals, two particular conditions stand out as the most prominent among them. First, although electoral college reform may not seem to be a partisan issue on the surface, almost every movement for reform has played out along partisan lines. Despite being nominally non- partisan in most instances, nearly every reform effort has earned the support of one party and the opposition of the other. Second, even when a reform movement does enjoy the support of a major party, regional or ideological differences within that party create additional – and often insurmountable – obstacles towards passage. This paper aims to analyze the politics of electoral college reform and consists of six parts. The first section depicts the process of creating the electoral college and the Framers‟ understanding of how the system would work. The next four sections represent four case studies of major electoral college reform movements. Each case study examines the origins of a reform effort and elicits the reasons for both its successes and its failures. The four cases examined are: the Twelfth Amendment of 1804, the Lodge- Gossett Amendment of 1950, the Celler-Bayh Amendments of 1969 and 1970, and the National Popular Vote plan that began in 2006. The final section provides concluding remarks. 4 The Birth of the Electoral College “This subject has greatly divided the House, and will also divide people out of doors. It is in truth the most difficult of all on which we have had to decide.” James Wilson, August 4, 17871 Over the course of the Constitutional Convention of 1787, the designated form and function of the national executive changed and underwent modifications several times over. While some debates centered on the role and powers of the executive, others focused on the name, number, or length of term. One of the most contentious of these debates addressed the method of selection for the executive. Two primary options for selection – direct popular election and legislative selection – originally framed the debate, but both models had apparent weaknesses. The innovation of the electoral college seemed to provide a middle path that eliminated those weaknesses and offered a compromise for proponents of the two original models. As history has shown, however, the electoral college has not functioned entirely as its designers had intended. The Framers of the Constitution arrived