Regional Variation in Panjabi-English Jessica Hazel Wormald PhD University of York Language and Linguistic Science March 2016 2 Abstract The research presented in this thesis details the linguistic patterns of two contact varieties of English spoken in the UK. Based on an analysis of recordings made in two British cities, the research assesses the influence of Panjabi on the English spoken in Bradford and Leicester. In addition, it considers what the role and influence of the respective regional ‘Anglo English’ variety is having on the development of the contact variety in each location. The research here focusses on variation in voice quality, the vowels FACE, GOAT and GOOSE, and the realisation of /r/. For voice quality, a vocal profile analysis (e.g. Laver 1980) was completed for each of the speakers included in the corpus with characteristic vocal settings observed among Panjabi and Anglo English groups. The results from a dynamic vowel analysis of F1 and F2 variation across the trajectory for FACE, GOAT and GOOSE illustrated that despite the cross regional similarities which are observable in Panjabi English, local interpretations are crucial. A combined auditory and acoustic analysis of /r/ in word initial and medial position revealed divergent regional patterns in Panjabi English. A number of arguments are put forward to account for the linguistic parallels reported here, and more widely, in contact varieties of English in the UK. The findings of the thesis contribute to a growing body of work that explores the development of contact varieties spoken in the UK, with this thesis concentrating on the development of ‘Panjabi English’ in two locations simultaneously. The patterns observed are accounted for by considering research from both language and dialect contact research, with the thesis drawing together ideas from these two separate fields. The claims put forward argue that the similar patterns observed can be considered to be independent innovations, with contact processes accounting for the linguistic correspondences. 3 4 Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................. 3 Contents ............................................................................................................................. 5 List of Tables ................................................................................................................... 13 List of Figures ................................................................................................................. 15 Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... 23 Declaration ...................................................................................................................... 25 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 27 2 Background ............................................................................................................. 31 2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 31 2.2 Contact .............................................................................................................. 31 2.2.1 The development of new varieties ............................................................ 31 2.2.1.1 Processes of new dialect formation ....................................................... 33 2.2.1.2 The role of identity ................................................................................ 34 2.2.2 English Contact varieties ........................................................................... 37 2.2.2.1 London ................................................................................................... 37 2.2.2.2 The Midlands ......................................................................................... 45 2.2.2.3 Northern England .................................................................................. 47 2.2.2.4 Scotland ................................................................................................. 50 2.2.2.5 English in the Indian subcontinent ........................................................ 53 2.2.3 Implications for the current work .............................................................. 54 2.3 The Panjab, Panjabi and the UK ....................................................................... 57 2.3.1 Panjabi ....................................................................................................... 57 2.3.1.1 Panjabi in the UK .................................................................................. 61 2.3.2 A brief history of migration: from the Panjab to the UK .......................... 64 2.3.2.1 From the Panjab to Bradford & Leicester ............................................. 66 5 2.4 Summary .......................................................................................................... 67 3 Fieldwork: Sampling & Methods............................................................................ 69 3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 69 3.2 Participants ....................................................................................................... 69 3.2.1 Language background ............................................................................... 69 3.2.1.1 Panjabi in Leicester vs. Panjabi in Bradford ......................................... 71 3.2.2 Region ....................................................................................................... 73 3.2.3 Age ............................................................................................................ 76 3.2.4 Gender ....................................................................................................... 77 3.2.5 A note about class ..................................................................................... 77 3.3 Sampling........................................................................................................... 77 3.3.1 Sampling Methods .................................................................................... 79 3.3.2 Recording Equipment ............................................................................... 80 3.3.3 Data Management ..................................................................................... 80 3.4 Methods ............................................................................................................ 80 3.4.1 My role as the fieldworker ........................................................................ 81 3.4.2 Paired participation ................................................................................... 81 3.4.3 The Interview ............................................................................................ 82 3.4.3.1 Written Questionnaire ........................................................................... 84 3.4.3.2 Spot-the-difference task ........................................................................ 88 3.4.3.3 Paired Conversations ............................................................................. 91 3.4.3.4 Fieldworker Interview ........................................................................... 93 3.4.3.5 Reading Passage .................................................................................... 93 3.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 94 4 Voice Quality .......................................................................................................... 95 4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 95 4.2 Background ...................................................................................................... 96 6 4.2.1 Componential voice quality research ........................................................ 96 4.2.2 Variation in phonation ............................................................................. 102 4.3 Predictions ...................................................................................................... 105 4.4 Methodology ................................................................................................... 106 4.4.1 Vocal Tract Features ............................................................................... 111 4.4.1.1 Labial and Mandibular settings ........................................................... 111 4.4.1.2 Lingual settings ................................................................................... 112 4.4.1.3 Pharynx and Larynx settings ............................................................... 115 4.4.1.4 Velopharyngeal settings ...................................................................... 116 4.4.2 Overall Muscular Tension ....................................................................... 117 4.4.3 Phonation Features .................................................................................. 117 4.4.4 Completing the VPA protocols ............................................................... 119 4.5 Results ............................................................................................................ 120 4.5.1 Female Voice