Comprehensive Study on Cybercrime Draft—February 2013 Front cover photo credits (left to right): ©iStockphoto.com/TommL ©iStockphoto.com/mikewesson ©iStockphoto.com/polygraphus UNITED NATIONS OFFICE ON DRUGS AND CRIME Vienna Comprehensive Study on Cybercrime Draft February 2013 UNITED NATIONS New York, 2013 ©Copyright United ©Nations, 2013, UnitedFebruary Nations 2013. Office All rights on Drugs reserved and worldwide.Crime ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This report was prepared for the open-ended intergovernmental expert group on cybercrime by Conference Support Section, Organized Crime Branch, Division for Treaty Affairs, UNODC, under the supervision of John Sandage (Director, Division for Treaty Affairs), Sara Greenblatt (Chief, Organized Crime Branch), and Gillian Murray (UNODC Senior Focal Point for Cybercrime and Chief, Conference Support Section). Study team: Steven Malby, Robyn Mace, Anika Holterhof, Cameron Brown, Stefan Kascherus, Eva Ignatuschtschenko (UNODC) Consultants: Ulrich Sieber, Tatiana Tropina, Nicolas von zur Mühlen (Max Planck Institute for Foreign and International Criminal Law) Ian Brown, Joss Wright (Oxford Internet Institute and Cyber Security Centre, University of Oxford) Roderic Broadhurst (Australian National University) Kristin Krüger (Brandenburg Institute for Society and Security) DISCLAIMERS This report is a draft prepared for the second meeting of the open-ended intergovernmental expert group on cybercrime and should not be cited without permission of UNODC. This report has not been formally edited and remains subject to editorial changes. The contents of this report do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of UNODC or contributory organizations and neither do they imply any endorsement. The designations employed and the presentation of material in this report do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNODC concerning the legal status of any county, territory or city or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers and boundaries. CONTENTS ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................................................... v INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... ix KEY FINDINGS AND OPTIONS ...................................................................................................... xi EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................................................................................. xvii CHAPTER ONE: CONNECTIVITY AND CYBERCRIME ................................ 1 1.1. The global connectivity revolution............................................................................................... 1 1.2. Contemporary cybercrime ............................................................................................................. 4 1.3. Cybercrime as a growing challenge .............................................................................................. 6 1.4. Describing cybercrime.................................................................................................................. 11 CHAPTER TWO: THE GLOBAL PICTURE .............................................................. 23 2.1. Measuring cybercrime ....................................................................................................................... 23 2.2. The global cybercrime picture ......................................................................................................... 25 2.3. Cybercrime perpetrators ................................................................................................................... 39 CHAPTER THREE: LEGISLATION AND FRAMEWORKS .......................... 51 3.1. Introduction – The role of law ........................................................................................................ 51 3.2. Divergence and harmonization of laws ......................................................................................... 56 3.3. Overview of international and regional instruments ................................................................... 63 3.4. Implementing multilateral instruments at the national level ...................................................... 72 CHAPTER FOUR: CRIMINALIZATION ........................................................................ 77 4.1. Criminalization overview .................................................................................................................. 77 4.2. Analysis of specific offenses ............................................................................................................ 81 4.3. International human rights law and criminalization .................................................................. 107 iii CHAPTER FIVE: LAW ENFORCEMENT AND INVESTIGATIONS .. 117 5.1. Law enforcement and cybercrime ................................................................................................. 117 5.2. Investigative powers overview ....................................................................................................... 122 5.3. Privacy and investigative measures ............................................................................................... 134 5.4. Use of investigative measures in practice ..................................................................................... 142 5.5. Investigations and the private sector ............................................................................................ 144 5.6. Law enforcement capacity .............................................................................................................. 152 CHAPTER SIX: ELECTRONIC EVIDENCE AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE ................................................................................................................................................... 157 6.1. Introduction to electronic evidence and digital forensics ......................................................... 157 6.2. Capacity for digital forensics and electronic evidence handling ............................................... 162 6.3. Cybercrime and the criminal justice system ................................................................................. 168 6.4. Criminal justice capacity .................................................................................................................. 172 6.5. Capacity building and technical assistance ................................................................................... 178 CHAPTER SEVEN: INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION ............................ 183 7.1. Sovereignty, jurisdiction and international cooperation ............................................................ 183 7.2. Jurisdiction ........................................................................................................................................ 189 7.3. International cooperation I – formal cooperation ...................................................................... 197 7.4. International cooperation II – informal cooperation ................................................................. 208 7.5. Extra-territorial evidence from clouds and service providers ................................................... 216 CHAPTER EIGHT: PREVENTION .................................................................................. 225 8.1. Cybercrime prevention and national strategies ........................................................................... 225 8.2. Cybercrime awareness ..................................................................................................................... 234 8.3. Cybercrime prevention, the private sector and academia .......................................................... 239 ANNEX ONE: ACT DESCRIPTIONS .................................................................................... 257 ANNEX TWO: MEASURING CYBERCRIME ...................................................................... 259 ANNEX THREE: PROVISIONS OF INTERNATIONAL AND REGIONAL INSTRUMENTS ............................................................................................... 267 ANNEX FOUR: THE INTERNET ............................................................................................. 277 ANNEX FIVE: METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................... 283 iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Abbreviations CERT Computer Emergency Response Team CSIRT Computer Security Incident Response Team ECHR European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms ECtHR European Court of Human Rights EU European Union EUROPOL European Police Office G8 Group of Eight GDP Gross domestic product HDI Human Development Index ICCPR International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ICCPR-OP2 Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, aiming at the abolition of the death penalty ICERD International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination ICESCR International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ICRMW United Nations International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families ICT Information and communications technology INTERPOL International Criminal Police Organization IP Internet protocol ISP Internet service provider