Human Security in Nepal: Concepts, Issues and Challenges 1 Human Security in Nepal: Concepts, Issues and Challenges Edited by Bishnu Raj Upreti Rajan Bhattarai Geja Sharma Wagle Published by Nepal Institute for Policy Studies and South Asia Regional Coordination Office of NCCR (North-South) Kathmandu 2013 Citation: Upreti BR, Bhattarai R, Wagle GS, editors. 2013. Human Security in Nepal: Concepts, Issues and Challenges. Kathmandu: Nepal Institute for Policy Studies (NIPS) and South Asia Regional Coordination Office of NCCR (North-South). Copyright © 2013 by NIPS and NCCR North-South, Kathmandu, Nepal. All rights reserved. ISBN: 978-9937-2-5257-7 Subsidised price: NRs. 400/- Layout & cover design: Jyoti Khatiwada Printed by: Heidel Press Pvt. Ltd. Dillibazar, Kathmandu Cover Concept: Safal Ghimire Disclaimer: The content and materials presented in this book are the authors’ and do not necessarily reflect the views and opinions of the institution with which the authors are affiliated. Dedication To the millions of people who are suffering from human insecurity. Acknowledgements The issue of security is a little-debated matter in our academic domain. When it comes to dealing human security, we often confront questions like: What constitutes human security? Why has it become so pertinent for a country like Nepal? How can human security be made tenable? These and many other questions on human security came to our mind before we decided to publish this book. This is our small attempt to address some of those questions and generate debate and discussion on the increasingly changing security dynamics of Nepal. This book is the collective outcome of the efforts of several people. Though it is not possible to list them all individually, we would like to extend our sincere thanks to them collectively. It would be unfair not to acknowledge some of the persons who were very instrumental in bringing the book into shape. Our first and foremost gratitude goes to the authors of the individual chapters, who despite their extremely busy schedules accepted our request to write a chapter. Without them, we cannot even think of the book. We would like to extend sincere thanks to Ms. Ramala Bhandari of the Nepal Institute for Policy Studies (NIPS) who took the burden of logistical support throughout the preparation of this book. Likewise, we extend our thanks to the staffs from the South Asia Regional Office of the National Centre of Competence of Research (NCCR) North-South, especially Mr. Siddhi Manadhar, Mr. Suman Babu Paudel and Mr. Safal Ghimire for their support at different stages of the preparation of this book. We would like to express our gratitude to Dr Sally Carlton of NIPS who worked hard to review all the chapters, prepared comments to send to the individual writers, as well edited the chapters for English language. The editors of the book Human Security in Nepal: Concepts, Issues and Challenges acknowledge support from the Swiss National Centre of Competence in Research (NCCR) North- South, co-funded by the Swiss i National Science Foundation (SNSF), the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) and the participating institutions. We thank Ms Jyoti Khatiwada from Heidel Press, Dillibazar, for her hard work on formatting and designing the book. We invite constructive and valuable comments and suggestions from our esteemed readers. Editors Kathmandu January 2013 ii List of contents Acknowledgements .................................................................................... i Acronyms and abbreviations ....................................................................vii Chapter 1 Introduction .......................................................................... 1 Chapter 2 Human security: Concepts and criticism ............................. 11 Rajan Bhattarai Chapter 3 Poverty: A threat to human security ................................... 33 Yuba Raj Khatiwada Chapter 4 Social protection for human security .................................. 59 Sony KC, Bishnu Raj Upreti Chapter 5 Food security: A fundamental basis for human security ..... 89 Yamuna Ghale, Nirmal Kumar Bishokarma Chapter 6 Health and human security ............................................... 119 Damodar Adhikari Chapter 7 Changing migration patterns and their impacts on human security in Nepal ................................................... 159 Anita Ghimire Chapter 8 Climate change: A challenge to human security ............... 185 Batu Krishna Uprety Chapter 9 Environmental security: Concepts, issues and problems ........................................................................... 211 Bishnu Raj Upreti Chapter 10 Political insecurity and armed conflict: A threat to human security ............................................................. 251 Geja Sharma Wagle Chapter 11 Human security in Nepal: Where to now? ........................ 279 Sally Carlton About the authors ................................................................................. 293 iii List of tables Table 4.1 Two discernable patterns of social protection ................... 67 Table 4.2 Why social risk management framework for social protection ........................................................................... 68 Table 4.3 Understanding social risk management framework .......... 69 Table 4.4 Impacts of social transfers ................................................. 72 Table 4.5 Various social protection programmes .............................. 73 Table 4.6 Karnali employment programme: Progress report from five districts (2009/10) ....................................................... 75 Table 4.7 Social protection as a human security issue in relation to the MDGs .......................................................... 81 Table 5.1 Evolution of international instruments .............................. 91 Table 5.2 Some major instruments related to poverty and hunger ratified by the Government of Nepal .............. 97 Table 5.3 Major food security policies and programmes in Nepal .... 99 Table 6.1 Health and human security: A global scenario ................. 120 Table 6.2 Trends in key health indicators and MDGs targets .......... 125 Table 6.3 Key maternal care indicators ........................................... 126 Table 6.4 Immunisation indicators .................................................. 127 Table 6.5 Treatment status (Maternal and child health) ................. 128 Table 6.6 Trends in the nutritional status of children under five years of age ..................................................... 130 Table 6.7 Breast and complementary feeding ................................. 130 Table 6.8 Key indicators related to HIV/AIDS and current status (%) .............................................................. 132 Table 6.9 Trends in four or more ANC visits by wealth quintile in percentage ...................................................... 134 iv Table 6.10 Trends in deliveries attended by Doctors, Nurses and Auxiliary Nurse Midwives (ANMs) by wealth quintile in percentage ....................................................................... 135 Table 6.11 Proportion of fully immunised children aged 12-23 months by wealth quintile in percentage ........................ 135 Table 6.12 Prevalence of diabetes in South Asia (projected in 1998) ............................................................ 138 Table 6.13 Risk factors for non-communicable diseases (2007-2008, population aged 15-64 years) ...................... 139 Table 6.14 Budget vs expenses status-DOHS and irregularities clearance status ............................................................... 148 Table 10.1 The number of deceased, disappeared, displaced and abducted persons from 13 february 1996 due to the armed conflict (Numbers as of july, 2011). ...................... 260 Table 10.2 Agreements among major political parties and important decisions of the Government of Nepal and Parliament ........................................................................ 263 Table 10.3 Facts and figures regarding the maoist army combatants’ registration, verification, regrouping process and number of arms ........................................... 265 Table 10.4 Killings and human rights violations after the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) ............... 267 List of figures Figure 1.1 Link of different security issues within the overarching concept of human security. .................................................. 3 Figure 1.2 Overview and the interrelationship between different chapters ................................................................................. 7 Figure 4.1 The 3P framework: Functions of the institution and resilience opportunity .................................................. 70 v Figure 4.2 Factors that makes human security when linked to social protection ............................................................. 77 Figure 4.3 European Union, Social protection reduces poverty by 50 per cent .......................................................................... 80 Figure 6.1 The health and human security link ................................. 122 Figure 6.2 Relationship between NCDs and poverty ......................... 137 Figure 8.1 The emission gap .............................................................. 191 Figure 8.2 Average annual maximum temperatures (1975-2006) .... 193 Figure 8.3 Precipitation trends (1971-2006) ...................................... 194 Figure 8.4 Climate