Community Perceptions of Environmental Indicators for Management of Wetland Important Bird Areas in Kenya By Thandiwe Chikomo, BSc (Hon), M.A. (University of Zimbabwe) A THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILLMENT OF TIIE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING & MANAGEMENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI, KENYA 2014 declaration This thesis is my original work and it has no. been submitted for examination or any degree award in any other University Thandiwe Chikomo (C80/80041/2011) This Thesis has been submitted for examination with our approval as University Supervisors /ffife n o roy.t.t^ Dr. Francis Mwaura ^ Dj/lsaiah A. Nyandega Department of Geography & Department of Geography & Environmental Studies Environmental Studies University of Nairobi University of Nairobi Kenya Kenya 11 d e d ic a t io n 1 Z la,e parems> Pine Chiltomo and Emil>' Mlandu Chikomo ^ b ,m tf “ d^ ,he‘r SUPP°rt' “d extraordinary faith in Z 111 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This study was part of a research that was financially supported by the Rufford Small Grants Foundation (ref 8890-1). The research was conducted with the permission of the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology of Kenya (permit number NCST/RRI/12/1/ES-011/08). I am immensely indebted to my lead supervisor Dr. Mwaura for taking me back to the school benches and pointing out idiosyncrasies, inconsistencies and plan errors. Sincere appreciation is also extended to my co­ supervisor Dr. Isaiah Ang‘iro Nyandega for his guidance and constructive criticisms which contributed immensely to the final product. I am also indebted to Mr. Joel Wamalwa, an Environment Officer at Kerio Valley Development Authority (KVDA) and Tiffany Mwake who assisted with data analysis and entry respectively. I would like to salute the Director and staff of the Board of Post-Graduate Studies (BPS), Chair of the Department of Geography and Environmental Studies at the University o f Nairobi, Dr. Samuel Owuor, the academic and administrative staff, fellow research peers and technicians, especially the late Mr. Joseph Kerema for diligence and selfless dedication to duty. I am grateful to the local research assistants namely Mr. Anderson and Mr. Matayo at Lake Bogoria; Mr. Enock ole Kiminta of Lake Naivasha Pastoralists Outreach Services (POS) and Mr. Dennis Masaai Muhia at Lake Naivasha as well as Mr. Maulidi Diwayu of the Tana Delta Conservation Organisation for providing the much needed support. The study would not have been possible without the cooperation of the residents of the study sites, since the research was founded on their local knowledge and perceptions. Sincere gratitude is extended to the Council of Elders, chiefs and representatives of the local authorities and government ministries. The support from Dr. Julius Alexander Arinaitwe, the Regional Director of BirdLife Intemational-Africa Partnership Secretariat in Nairobi, Kenya was instrumental is ensuring that the study was completed. I am also grateful to Dr. Philip Bubb and Damon Stamwell Smith for sharing their expertise on indicator development work. I also thank my family for their unwavering support. Above all, I thank the Lord God Almighty, only through Him, are all things possible and may all those who stood with me in prayers be rewarded abundantly. ‘If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giantsSir Isaac Newton in a letter to Robert Hookes dated the 5th of February 1675 IV TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION.......................................................................................................................... jjj ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...................................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS........................................................................................................ v LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS..............................................................................................xvi ABSTRACT....................................................................................... xviii CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1. Background of the Study...............................................................................................1 1.1.1. Wetlands in Peril...................................................................................................... 1 1.1.2. Role of Community Perceptions in Environmental Management of Wetlands.3 1.1.3. Importance of Environmental Indicators in Management of Wetlands.............4 1.1.4. The Pressure -State-Response Framework for Wetland Management and Linkages to Perception on Indicators................................................................................7 1.2. Statement of Research P roblem .....................................................................................9 1.3. Research Questions............................................................................................................9 1.4. Objectives of the Study................................................................................................... 10 1.5. Study Justification...........................................................................................................10 1.5.1. Theoretical Contributions to Perceptions of Environmental Indicators and Wetland Management.......................................................................................................10 1.5.2. Methodological Contributions to Perceptions of Environmental Indicators ...12 1.5.3. Policy Contributions to Wetland IBA Management.......................................... 12 1.6. Operational Definitions............................................................................. .'...................12 v CHAPTER TWO THE STUDY AREA 2.1. Size and Location of the Study Areas.........................................................................13 2.2. Topography and Climate of the Study Sites.............................................................. 17 2.3. Population and Socio -Cultural Aspects of the Study Sites................................... 19 “ A i CHAPTER THREE MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1. Study Design..................................................................................................................... 21 3.2. Data Types and Sources.................................................................................................21 3.2.1. Primary Data.......................................................................................................... 22 3.2.2. Secondary Data...................................................................................................... 23 3.3. Data Collection.................................................................................................................24 3.3.1. Pilot Study (Reconnaissance) at One of the Sites..............................................24 3.3.2. Target Population and Sample Size.....................................................................25 3.3.3. Data Collection Instruments.................................................................................27 3.3.4. Sampling Procedure (Data Collection Procedure) or Techniques....................27 3.4. Ethical Considerations...................................................................................................36 3.5: Data Processing and Analyses......................................................................................37 3.5.1. Data Processing...................................................................................................... 37 3.5.2. Data Analysis Techniques.....................................................................................39 3.6. Scope and Limitations of the Study...........................................................................42 vi CHAPTER FOUR LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 4.1. Introduction....................................................................................................................... 43 4.2. Factors Influencing Environmental Perceptions.......................................................43 4.3. Factors that Influence Perception at the Local Community Scale....'...................45 4.4. Composite Indicators of Environmental Sustainability...........................................48 4.4.1. Community Well- Being Indicators..................................................................... 49 4.4.2. Sustainability Indicators.........................................................................................51 4.4.3. Environmental Indicators at the Global Scale................................................... 51 4.4.4. Environmental Indicators at the National Scale: BINU Pilot Project in the context of Kenya...............................................................................................................56 4.4.5. Challenges and Prospects for Future Indicator Development W ork...............58 4.5. An Overview of Wetlands..............................................................................................61 4.5.1. Wetlands at the Global Scale................................................................................61 4.5.2. Wetlands in Kenya.................................................................................................65 4.6. Significance of Important Bird Areas in Wetland Conservation......................... 68 4.7. The Important Bird Areas (IBA) Concept................................................................ 69 4.8. Important Bird Areas in K enya...............................................................