Environmental issue report No 31 Energy and environment in the European Union 1 Environmental issue report No 31 Energy and environment in the European Union Prepared by: AEA Technology Environment, partner to European Topic Centre on Air and Climate Change, Aphrodite Mourelatou and Ian Smith, European Environment Agency Project manager: Aphrodite Mourelatou European Environment Agency 2 Energy and environment in the European Union Cover: EEA Layout: Folkmann Design A/S Note The contents of this report do not necessarily reflect the official opinion of the European Commission or other European Communities institutions. Neither the European Environment Agency nor any person or company acting on behalf of the Agency is responsible for the use that may be made of the information contained in this report. A great deal of information on the European Union is available on the Internet. It can be accessed through the Europa server (http://europa.eu.int). Cataloguing data can be found at the end of this publication. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2002 ISBN 92-9167-468-0 © EEA, Copenhagen 2002 Printed in Denmark European Environment Agency Kongens Nytorv 6 DK-1050 Copenhagen K Denmark Tel.: (+45) 33 36 71 00 Fax: (+45) 33 36 71 99 E-mail: [email protected] Internet: http://www.eea.eu.int 3 Contents Foreword ................................................................................................................. 7 Summary ................................................................................................................. 9 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 9 1. Is the use of energy having less impact on the environment? ........................... 11 1.a. Greenhouse gas emissions .......................................................................... 11 1.b. Air pollution ................................................................................................. 12 1.c. Other energy-related pressures ................................................................... 13 2. Are we using less energy? .................................................................................. 14 3. How rapidly is energy efficiency being increased? ............................................ 15 4. Are we switching to less-polluting fuels? ........................................................... 16 5. How rapidly are renewable energy technologies being implemented? ............ 17 6. Are we moving towards a pricing system that better incorporates environmental costs? .................................................. 18 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 19 1. Is the use of energy having less impact on the environment? ............................. 23 1.1. Greenhouse gas emissions .................................................................................. 24 1.2. Air pollution ......................................................................................................... 28 1.3. Other energy-related pressures........................................................................... 30 2. Are we using less energy? .................................................................................... 36 3. How rapidly is energy efficiency being increased? .............................................. 39 3.1 Efficiency in energy supply ................................................................................... 40 3.2 Efficiency in energy consumption ......................................................................... 44 4. Are we switching to less-polluting fuels? ............................................................. 47 5. How rapidly are renewable energy technologies being implemented? .............. 51 6. Are we moving towards a pricing system that better incorporates environmental costs? .................................................... 54 Annex ............................................................................................................... 61 References ............................................................................................................... 62 Acronyms and abbreviations ...................................................................................... 67 4 Energy and environment in the European Union Figures and boxes Summary figures • Change in energy-related greenhouse gas emissions by economic sector, 1990–99 ............................................................................................ 11 • Performance in reducing total and energy-related greenhouse gas emissions to meet Kyoto Protocol targets, 1999 ......................................................... 11 • Change in total and energy-related emissions of nitrogen oxides, 1990–99 .............. 12 • Explanations for the reduction of emissions of sulphur dioxide in the electricity sector, 1990–99 ............................................................................................ 12 • Marine environment oil pollution from refineries and offshore installations, and from accidental oil tanker spills (above 7 tonnes per spill) .............. 13 • Annual quantities of spent nuclear fuel from nuclear power plant .............................. 13 • Final energy consumption and electricity consumption growth, 1990–99................... 14 • Final energy consumption............................................................................................. 14 • Share of gross electricity production from combined heat and power plant, 1994 and 1998 .............................................................................................................. 15 • Annual change in final energy intensity, 1990–99 ........................................................ 15 • Total energy consumption by source ............................................................................ 16 • Electricity production by source ................................................................................... 16 • Share of total energy consumption provided by renewable energy sources ............... 17 • Share of electricity consumption met by renewable energy sources, 1999 ................. 17 Report figures Figure 1. Examples of the environmental pressures imposed at different stages of the energy supply and demand chain ...........................................20 Figure 2. Greenhouse gas emissions ............................................................................. 24 Figure 3. Change in total and energy-related greenhouse gas emissions .................... 26 Figure 4. Energy-related greenhouse gas emissions ..................................................... 27 Figure 5. Change in total and energy-related sulphur dioxide emissions..................... 28 Figure 6. Change in total and energy-related emissions of nitrogen oxides ................ 30 Figure 7. Change in total and energy-related NMVOC emissions ................................ 31 5 Figure 8. Energy-related primary and secondary particulate emissions ....................... 33 Figure 9. Marine environment oil pollution ................................................................... 34 Figure 10. Annual quantities of spent nuclear fuel from nuclear power plant ................ 35 Figure 11. Final energy consumption .............................................................................. 37 Figure 12. Growth in final energy consumption and electricity consumption, 1990–99 ................................................................................... 38 Figure 13. Ratio of final to total energy consumption .................................................... 40 Figure 14. Improvement in fossil fuel electricity production efficiency ........................... 42 Figure 15. Share of gross electricity production from combined heat and power plant ............................................................................................ 43 Figure 16. Final energy consumption, gross domestic product and final energy intensity ...................................................................................... 44 Figure 17. Annual change in final energy intensity, 1990–99 .......................................... 44 Figure 18. Annual change in sectoral energy intensities and related drivers, 1990–99 .......................................................................................................... 45 Figure 19. Total energy consumption by source ............................................................. 48 Figure 20. Electricity production by source ..................................................................... 49 Figure 21. Share of total energy consumption provided by renewable energy sources................................................................................................ 52 Figure 22. Share of electricity consumption met by renewable energy sources, 1999 .................................................................................................. 53 Figure 23. Proportion of tax in final energy prices .......................................................... 56 Figure 24. Change in the absolute value of taxation applied to fuels, 1985–2001 ........ 56 Figure 25. Estimated distribution of direct energy subsidies (1990–1995 average) ....... 59 Figure 26. Energy research and development expenditure ...........................................