The Mi’kmaq Nation and the Embodiment of Political Ideologies: Ni’kmaq, Protocol and Treaty Negotiations of the Eighteenth Century A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Atlantic Canada Studies at Saint Mary’s University October 2003 Copyright by Rosalie Marie Francis, 2003 Thesis ExamininfeTCommittee: Supervisor: Dr. Harold Mc GbA Supervisor: Dr. John Reid Reader: Dr. William Wicken Reader: Dr. Margaret Harry Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 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TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract........................................................................................................................... p. i Acknowledgments..........................................................................................................p. ii Introduction.....................................................................................................................p. 1 Chapter 1: Cultural and Social Determinants Contributing to Mi’kmaq Political Relationships and Ideologies .......................................................................................... p. 8 Chapter 2: Mi’kmaq Political Alliances and Structures: A Consensus of Protocol and Collective Identity.......................................................................................................... p. 44 Chapter 3: The Ni’kmaq of the 1 8th Century.............................................................. p. 85 Chapter 4: Mi’kmaq and British Treaty Negotiations: Beyond the Written Word.... p. 143 Conclusion.................................................................................................................... p. 190 Appendix a: Leadership Chart................................................................................. p. 197 Appendix b: Map of Communities...........................................................................p. 198 Appendix c: Mi’kmaq Districts ............................................................................... p. 199 Bibliography:................................................................................................................ p.200 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ABSTRACT During the eighteenth century, the Mi’kmaq Nation entered into a series of peace and friendship treaties with the British which established a political and legal relationship between themselves and the British crown. Mi’kmaq leaders entered into the treaties for specific reasons; however, no written Mi’kmaq record exists which clearly outlines the Mi’kmaq leadership’s intention when they negotiated the treaties. This thesis analyzes the political processes and logic behind Mi’kmaq leaders’ desire to enter into the treaties, and the various aspects of Mi’kmaq society, including cultural and social norms which perpetuated political structures, leadership and political ideologies. The political leaders, their families and social relationships are identified, demonstrating the political role in which Ni’kmaq (kin-relations) played in the political environment of the eighteenth century. The negotiations which led up to the signing of the treaties are also presented, providing further evidence that Mi’kmaq cultural and social norms supported political ideologies, structures and actions of leaders and shaped the treaty making process they undertook with the British. The Mi’kmaq Nation and the Embodiment of Political Ideologies: Ni’kmaq, Protocol and Treaty Negotiations of the 18* Century Rosalie Francis, August 25th, 2003 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS During the past two years that I have pursued the completion of my thesis I have been assisted by numerous people to whom I owe many thanks. Within my academic world I am grateful for the expert advice of my thesis advisors at Saint Mary’s University, Dr. Harold McGee and Dr. John Reid. Throughout the past year, your academic expertise provided me with guidance and the assurance that my thesis was an accurate reflection of Mi’kmaq culture and history. Thank you both for all of your advice and encouragement. To William Wicken of York University who never hesitated to e-mail me with a response to my many questions, and even provided me with his own personal translated notes. Your assistance was beyond what I expected, and I thank you. Thank you also to all of my professors at the Atlantic Canada Studies program at St. Mary’s whose classes made my graduate experience a pleasure. At the Confederacy of Mainland Mi’kmaq I was provided with unlimited access to all of the evidence books from the Stephen Marshall logging case and the Donald Marshall Jr. fishing case by the Executive Director, Don Julien. Thanks so much Don, your assistance saved me hours of research in the archives and photocopying costs as well. Your assistance did not go unnoticed or unappreciated. To the K’ji Keptin, Alex Denny, who has always reminded me of the importance of Mi’kmaq history and the need for our Mi’kmaq people to learn their history. Thank you for always finding a moment to share your wisdom with me. To Danny Christmas, whose friendship I treasure. Thank you for your continued support and interest in my academic Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. work. To my friend Eric Zscheile, thank you for your insight and for providing me with solid advice when I was in the midst of developing my research. The encouragement that I received from all of yourselves helped me to realize this thesis. Two other good friends who never doubted my academic ability and their daily words of encouragement provided me with the confidence I needed to see this thesis through. Thank you, Lori Maloney and Cathy Paul. This thesis would become meaningless without good friends like yourselves to share it with. Thanks for always having a moment to listen. Many other friends also supported me throughout this endeavor, with cups of tea and words of support. Their names are too many to list, but their friendship made the writing of this thesis all the easier. Thank you all. To my mother, Marie Francis, who helped me with numerous things every day. Thank you for taking Willow to school, doing my dishes, and for all of those little things that made it possible for me to write when I thought I would never be able to find the time. Thank you mom. A special acknowledgment to my Uncle Wilfred Basque, who provided me with the desire to learn more about our Mi’kmaq history. I was fortunate enough to have you share your thoughts and wisdom with me for a time and I am forever grateful. Finally, I would like to dedicate this thesis to my partner, Russell Robinson, and our children, Jade, Willow, and Jody. It is because of yourselves that I am able to write, as you are all the wind beneath my wings. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1 INTRODUCTION The Mi’kmaq nation are the indigenous people who reside in various communities found throughout present-day Atlantic Canada. Prior to European contact the Mi’kmaq nation existed in a society that possessed its own social structures, language, spirituality, culture and political ideologies. With the arrival of the eighteenth century, contact between European and the Mi’kmaq increased dramatically resulting in various effects on Mi’kmaq society. Such contact eventually led to the establishment of political relationships between Mi’kmaq leaders with both French leaders and British. It is the intention of this thesis to demonstrate that during the eighteenth century Mi’kmaq cultural norms