Journal of Consumer Behaviour J. Consumer Behav. 7: 272–292 (2008) Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/cb.251 A current overview of consumer neuroscience Mirja Hubert*,y and Peter Kenningy Zeppelin University, Am Seemooser Horn 20, 88045 Friedrichshafen, Germany The emerging discipline of neuroeconomics employs methods originally used in brain research for investigating economic problems, and furthers the advance of integrating neuroscientific findings into the economic sciences. Neuromarketing or consumer neuro- science is a sub-area of neuroeconomics that addresses marketing relevant problems with methods and insights from brain research. With the help of advanced techniques of neurology, which are applied in the field of consumer neuroscience, a more direct view into the ‘‘black box’’ of the organism should be feasible. Consumer neuroscience, still in its infancy, should not be seen as a challenge to traditional consumer research, but constitutes a complementing advancement for further investigation of specific decision-making behavior. The key contribution of this paper is to suggest a distinct definition of consumer neuroscience as the scientific proceeding, and neuromarketing as the application of these findings within the scope of managerial practice. Furthermore, we aim to develop a foundational understanding of the field, moving away from the derisory assumption that consumer neuroscience is about locating the ‘‘buy button’’ in the brain. Against this background the goal of this paper is to present specific results of selected studies from this emerging discipline, classified according to traditional marketing-mix instruments such as product, price, communication, and distribution policies, as well as brand research. The paper is completed by an overview of the most prominent brain structures relevant for consumer neuroscience, and a discussion of possible implications of these insights for economic theory and practice. Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Introduction Camerer et al., 2005; Kenning and Plassmann, 2005; Singer and Fehr, 2005). Neuroeco- In recent years, interest in applying neuro- nomics employs methods originally used in scientific findings and methodologies to other brain research to investigate economic pro- disciplines has been increasing. The innovative blems, and further advances the integration of approach of neuroeconomics demonstrates neuroscientific findings into the economic that this development has been incorporated sciences. Although both economists and into economic research (Braeutigam, 2005; neurologists attempt to understand and pre- dict human behavior, they have used quite *Correspondence to: Mirja Hubert, Zeppelin University, different methods in the past. Whereas eco- Am Seemooser Horn 20, 88045 Friedrichshafen, Germany. E-mail: [email protected] nomic research has tried to explain behavior yChair of Marketing. through observational data and theoretical Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Journal of Consumer Behaviour, July–October 2008 DOI: 10.1002/cb A current overview of consumer neuroscience 273 constructs such as utility or preferences, The determination of cortical areas that are neurology contemplates the physiological stimulated during consumer decision proces- elements and somatic variables that influence sing is important for various reasons. First, the behavior. Neuroeconomics, which evolved approach of consumer neuroscience enables from the combination of both disciplines, the researcher to reassess existing theories that proposes an interdisciplinary approach and theoretically assume different brain mechan- specifically examines the neural correlates of isms (e.g., hemisphere theory) by investigating decision-making (Sanfey et al., 2006). Market- the actual brain activations. Beyond this, the ing research has discovered neuroscience as observation of the total brain has the potential well. Neuromarketing or consumer neuro- to yield new, unpredictable results, and science is a sub-area of neuroeconomics that enhances the explorative character of con- addresses marketing relevant problems with sumer neuroscience. This contrasts measuring methods and insights from brain research the brain activity by recording only one signal, (Fugate, 2007; Lee et al., 2007). as it is used, for example, in EDR or eye Classical consumer research has seen the tracking, which can be compared to an effort human organism figuratively as a ‘‘black box,’’ to capture the musical sounds of an orchestra into which investigators could not gain direct by measuring only the noise level (Kenning insights. Instead, they had to use theoretical et al., 2007a). Third, concerning the empirical constructs in order to explain human behavior. data ascertainment, the observation of brain In this sense, the stimulus–organism–response activity can offer another, and more objective, model, which originated in neo-behaviorism, perspective: self-assessment methods that rely explains the initiation of behavior by a totally on the ability of the respondent to controlled stimulus (e.g., price) or an uncon- describe and reconstruct feelings and thoughts trolled stimulus (e.g., weather). The still are very subjective. Many effects in the human unobservable processing of this stimulus inside organism that influence behavior are not the organism is then related to the resulting perceived consciously; hence, the cognitive observable reaction (e.g., purchase) (Howard filter of the test taker may bias the results. For and Sheth, 1969). Examinations of the pro- example, a person who has a temperature may cesses inside the human organism are based on determine that his body feels cold, even established indirect methods such as electro- though the objective measurement of a clinical dermal response (EDR) measurement, pupillo- thermometer indicates that it is not. Fourth, graphy, and, most common, self-assessment strategic behavior and social desirability, methods (Bagozzi, 1991; Groeppel-Klein, which can confound findings of self-assess- 2005). A more direct view into the black ment methods, can be eliminated, given that box of the organism should be feasible with the the participating subjects have little to no help of advanced techniques and methods of influence on the measurement of their brain brain research that are now applied in the field activity (Camerer et al., 2005). A last, but very of consumer neuroscience (Kenning et al., important, advantage of determining the 2007a). Even though the application of cortical stimulation is the simultaneousness neurobiological methods such as electroence- of measurement and experiment. Some pro- phalography (EEG) is not new in marketing cesses might not be stable over time, making it research, the direct observation of the reac- very difficult for researcher and participant to tions within the brain that is now available reconstruct them ex-post (Lee et al., 2007). through the use of steadily improving methods As a consequence of these advantages, the of imaging techniques, for example, positron crossing of the own disciplinary boundaries emission tomography (PET) or functional and the consideration of all aspects that magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), is provid- determine decision-making can help consumer ing a completely different perspective (Plas- researchers and social scientists to more fully smann et al., 2007a). understand human behavior (Zaltman, 2000). Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Journal of Consumer Behaviour, July–October 2008 DOI: 10.1002/cb 274 Mirja Hubert and Peter Kenning With better comprehension and steadily area code for neuroscience. Furthermore, improving methods, it may be possible to ‘‘googling’’ the term ‘‘neuromarketing’’ cur- derive new theories for marketing research rently yields more than 800 000 hits, which and to arrive at a higher level of explained establishes the field’s move into the main- variance (Knutson et al., 2007). This may in stream of research (Figure 1). turn help to improve companies’ actions, for Against the background of the embryonic example, marketing responses that are based nature of the field, a key contribution of this on a better satisfaction of unconscious emo- paper is to suggest a distinct definition of tional consumer needs. However, consumer neuromarketing and consumer neuroscience. neuroscience is still in its infancy and should The term ‘‘consumer neuroscience’’ com- not be seen as a challenge to traditional prises the scientific proceeding of this research consumer research. Rather, it constitutes a approach, and ‘‘neuromarketing’’ designates complementing advancement for further investi- the application of the findings from consumer gation of specific decision-making behavior. neuroscience within the scope of managerial The increasing relevance of this area of practice. Because of the way the terms are research is indicated by the growing interest of applied in the existing literature, and to science and practice (Fugate, 2007; Lee et al., prevent misunderstandings, both terms are 2007; Plassmann et al., 2007a). For example, still used synonymously in the following. numerous conferences, calls for papers from Furthermore, we aim to develop a definitive prominent scientific journals, and calls for foundation, moving away from the derisory research by institutes such as the Marketing assumption that consumer neuroscience is Science Institute, the Institute for the Study of used for locating the ‘‘buy button’’ in the brain Business Markets (Lee et al., 2007),