A University of Sussex PhD thesis Available online via Sussex Research Online: http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/ This thesis is protected by copyright which belongs to the author. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Please visit Sussex Research Online for more information and further details EXPLORING TRANSNATIONAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP AMONG ALBANIAN MIGRANTS AND RETURNEES PhD thesis in Migration Studies JONIADA BARJABA School of Global Studies UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX December 2018 i I hereby declare that this thesis has not been and will not be, submitted in whole or in part to another University for the award of any other degree. Signature: DATE: 28/12/2018 ii CONTENTS List of figures…………………………………………………………………...…….……vi List of tables……………………………………………………………………………….vii List of abbreviations……………………..………………………….………………........viii Foreign words………………………………………………………………..………...... viii Acknowledgments………………………………………...………………………......…...ix Summary………………………………………………………………………………....…x Maps…………………………………………………………………………………….…xii 1. Introduction and research questions.……………………….....…………….….....1 1.1 Introducing transnational entrepreneurship……………….………………..…..1 1.2 Research aim and questions….………………………………………………..…..4 1.3 Overview of the thesis……..….……………………………………….………..…..7 2. Towards conceptualizing transnational entrepreneurship….………….............12 2.1 Transnationalism………………………………………………………………..…13 2.1.1 The rise of transnationalism …………………………………..……13 2.1.2 Typologies of transnationalism ………………………………..…...18 2.2 Migrant entrepreneurship ……………………………………………………..…22 2.2.1 The culturalist approach ……………………………..…………..…23 2.2.2 The structural approach………………………………………….…24 2.2.3 The enclave theory………………………………………...………..26 2.2.4 The situational approach…………………………………..……..…27 2.2.5 Embeddedness/mixed embeddedness …………….………..………28 2.2.6 Social networks ……………………………………………….....…29 2.2.7 Synthesis…………………………………………………………... 30 2.3 Transnational immigrant entrepreneurship…………………….…….……..…31 2.4 The potential impact of transnational immigrant entrepreneurship……..…39 2.5 Conclusion…………………………………………………………...………….…46 iii 3. Albanian international migration: trends and patterns………………………...49 3.1 Pre-communist migrations………………………….…………………………....49 3.2 Migration during the communist regime...……....…………………….…….....51 3.3 Post-communist migrations……………………………………………....………52 3.3.1 Migration from 1990-2000..………………………….……….…....53 3.3.2 Post-2000 migration……..…………………...………........………..55 3.4 Why and where do Albanians migrate?.........................................................59 3.4.1 Push and pull factors ……………………………….………………59 3.4.2 Destination countries ………………………………….…………...64 3.5 The Italian and Greek reaction to Albanian migration ………….……………68 3.6 Migration management framework …………………………………….…….…72 3.7 Albanian migrants’ integration …………………………………………….....…75 3.8 Return migration and reintegration challenges………………….……….……81 3.8.1 Characterizing return migration to Albania ……………….….……83 3.8.2 Understanding challenges of reintegration ………….…………...…86 3.9 Remittances…………………………………………………………………………89 3.10 Conclusion …………………………………………………………..……….…….93 4. Methodology and data….….….….….….….….….….…………..………….........95 4.1 Sources of qualitative and quantitative data………………………….……...…95 4.2 Research techniques…………………………………………………………….…96 4.2.1 Document review and analysis……………….............………..…...96 4.2.2 Semi-structured, face-to-face interviews…..……………………….98 4.3 Field sites…………………………………………………..………….................104 4.4 Access and sampling…………………………………………..…………..…..…107 4.5 Data analysis.…………….……………………………..………………..………110 4.6 Ethical considerations……………………………………………..….…...……113 4.6.1 Informed consent and confidentiality……………………....…..…114 4.6.2 My identity in the field…..…………………………………….….115 4.7 Conclusion………….……….…………………….…………………..………….118 iv 5. The entrepreneurial process………………………………………….…………120 5.1 Characteristics of transnational entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship…...120 5.2 Understanding motivations for entrepreneurship …………………..…....132 5.2.1 Necessity-driven motivation …………….……………………..….132 5.2.2 Opportunity-driven entrepreneurs………………………………….135 5.2.3 Multi-dimensional motivations ……………………………….…...140 5.3 Starting up the business……………………………………………...……..……145 5.3.1 Mobilization of resources.……………………………..………..…145 5.3.2 Albania: Pecunia no olet………………………………………..…156 5.3.3 Market entry…………………………………………..……...….…158 5.4 Business management………………………………………………………….…161 5.4.1 Relations with employees and business associations ………..……162 5.4.2 Frequency of travelling………………………………………....….164 5.4.3 Ownership of enterprises ………………………………...……..…166 5.5 Conclusion………………………………………………………………..……..…167 6. Albania’s macroeconomic and entrepreneurial environment……….….….…169 6.1 The broad macroeconomic environment………………….………..……….…170 6.1.1 The economy under communism……………….…………....…….170 6.1.2 The post-communist and current economic context……….........…172 6.1.3 Albania’s efforts to join the European Union: some significant indicators…………………………………………………………..………181 6.2 Political, institutional, and legal environment for entrepreneurship….…..183 6.2.1 Political environment ………………………………….…………..183 6.2.2 Institutional environment …………………………………………..187 6.2.3 Legal environment …………………………………….…………..191 6.3 Opportunities and challenges for entrepreneurs in Albania……...……..…193 6.3.1 The Albanian business environment ……………………..…….….194 6.3.2 Success factors ……………………………………………...….….197 6.3.3 The unsaid benefits …………………………………………….…..202 6.3.4 Challenges ……………………………………………….…….…..205 v 6.4 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………...212 7. Exploiting entrepreneurial opportunities across borders: prospects for development…………………………………..………………………….……....215 7.1 Alternative countries in which to build businesses and the environmental context in each country ……...……………………………..…...…………...…215 7.2 The transnational academic entrepreneurship…………………...……….…224 7.3 The potential of transnational entrepreneurship.…………….....………..…229 7.4 The obstacles for transnationalism in the Balkans……………………….....242 7.5 Conclusion …………………………………………………..………………...…244 8. Conclusions and policy recommendations ……………..…………….….…..…246 8.1 Key findings……………………..………………………..…………..………..…246 8.2 Strengths and limitations of the study and future research…………………252 8.3 Policy recommendations……...………………………………………………...254 List of References………………………………………………………………….……..264 Appendix A – Interview guide………...………………………..……………..…….…..299 Appendix B – Participant information sheet………………………….……..…………302 Appendix C – Interview notes………………………………………….…….……….…304 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 Six major approaches to transnationalism ……………………………….….18-19 Figure 2.2 Cross-border activities by different types of actors………………….………20-21 Figure 3.1 Trends in international migrant stock of Albanians (1990-2015)………………..57 Figure 3.2 Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty lines………………………………..60 Figure 3.3 Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty lines (by region)………………..….61 Figure 3.4 Destination countries of migrants stock (1990-2015)…………………………..65 Figure 3.5 Returnees by year of return (%)………………………………………….……..84 Figure 3.6 Albanian returnees by age group and sex (%) (2009-2013)……………….…….85 Figure 3.7 Remittances in Albania (1992-2015)....................................................................91 Figure 4.1 Referral sampling schema……………………………………………………...109 Figure 4.2 Basic demographic and thematic coding from the interviews ………...….……111 Figure 4.3 Creating categories for the analysis of interviews: an example …………..……113 Figure 5.1: The entrepreneurial process………………………………………….……….121 Figure 5.2 Time of first emigration…………………..……………………………………129 Figure 5.3 Transnational entrepreneurs………………………………………………..….146 Figure 5.4 Transnational business creation, 1992-2014………………………………..….159 Figure 5.5 Business locations in Albania, Italy, and Greece………………………………160 Figure 5.6 Frequency of business travel (number of entrepreneurs) ……………….….…165 Figure 6.1 GDP growth in Albania (annual %) 1981-2016.................................................175 Figure 6.2 Ease of doing business in Albania (2007-2018): Albania’s position in the global ranking….............................................................................................................................195 Figure 6.3 Starting a business in Albania (2007-2018): Albania’s position in the global ranking.................................................................................................................................195 Figure 6.4 Biggest obstacle to doing business in Albania (%)............................................196 Figure 6.5 Biggest obstacle to doing business in the Western Balkans (%)……..……...…196 Figure 6.6 Fiscal Freedom (2006-2016).........................................................………….…200 Figure 6.7 Population under age of 34 in Albania (2010-2016)...........................................201 vii LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1: Albanian employment by sector, Italian regions………………………………...78 Table 3.2: Albanian employment by sector in Greece……………………………………...79 Table 3.3: Employment by sector in Albania………………………………………….........80