TABLE OF CONTENTS Page number Chapter 1 : Introduction 1 Chapter 2 : Black Consciousness, Black Theology of Liberation and the World Council of Churches 35 Chapter 3 : The National Union of South African Students and the South African Students Organisation 103 Chapter 4 : Steve Biko and his influence on the activities of the Black Consciousness Movement 170 Chapter 5 : Women and the Black Consciousness Movement 220 Chapter 6 : Biko's death the Inquest 265 Chapter 7 : The Liberal Reaction to the Biko Inquest 304 Chapter 8 : Epilogue : Biko as a universal political figure 346 Sources 367 11 BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS AND WHITE LIBERALS IN SOUTH AFRICA : PARADOXICAL ANTI-APARTHEID POLITICS by MABEL RAISIBE MAII1'IELA Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY in the subject of HISTORY at the UNNERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA PROMOTER : PROFESSOR G.C. CUTHBERTSON JOINT-PROMOTER : DR L.J . T 'YMAN Date : December 1999 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page number Chapter 1 : Introduction 1 Chapter 2 : Black Consciousness, Black Theology of Liberation and the World Council of Churches 35 Chapter 3 : The National Union of South African Students and the South African Students Organisation 103 Chapter 4 : Steve Biko and his influence on the activities of the Black Consciousness Movement 170 Chapter 5 : Women and the Black Consciousness Movement 220 Chapter 6 : Biko's death the Inquest 265 Chapter 7 : The Liberal Reaction to the Biko Inquest 304 Chapter 8 : Epilogue : Biko as a universal political figure 346 Sources 367 11 ABSTRACT This research challenges the hypothesis that Biko was anti-liberal and anti-white . Biko's clearly defined condemnation of traditional South African white liberals such as Alan Paton is hypothesised as a strategic move in the liberation struggle designed to neutralise the "gradualism" of traditional white liberalism which believe that racism could be ultimately superseded by continually improving education for blacks . Biko neutralised apartheid racism and traditional white liberalism by affirming all aspects of blackness as positive values in themselves, and by locating racism as a white construct with deep roots in European colonialism and pseudo- Darwinian beliefs in white superiority . The research shows that Biko was neither anti-liberal nor anti-white . His own attitudes to the universal rights, dignity, freedom and self-determination of all human beings situate him continuously with all major human rights theorists and activists since the Enlightenment . His unique Africanist contribution was to define racist oppression in South Africa as a product of the historical conditioning of blacks to accept their own alleged inferiority . Biko's genius resided in his ability to synthesize his reading of Marxist, Africanist, European and African American into a truly original charter for racial emancipation . Biko's methodology encouraged blacks to reclaim their rights and pride as a prelude to total emancipation . The following transactions are described in detail : Biko's role in the founding of SASO and Black Consciousness ; the paradoxical relations between white liberal theologians, Black Consciousness and Black Theology ; the influence on BC of USA Black Power and Black Theology ; the role of Black Theologians in South African churches, SACC and WCC ; synergic complexities of NUSAS-SASO relations ; relations between BC, ANC and PAC ; the early involvement of women in BCM ; feminist issues in the liberation struggle; Biko's death in detention ; world-wide and South African liberal involvement in the inquest and anti-apartheid organisations . Keywords : Biko, Paton, Mandela, ANC, PAC, National Party, communism, liberalism, Marxism, Black Consciousness, South Africa, racism, colonialism, apartheid, negritude, Africanism, Black Power, NUSAS, SASO, Black Theology, SACC, WCC, women, liberation theology, feminism, feminist history, liberation struggle, oppression, psychological liberation DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to the following people My late parents-in-law PHAGANE (MATHOBELA) and NKUTU MAIIVIELA The late (Mamogolo) EDNAH RAMATSOBANE MOLABA . My parents RAMATSIIVIELE KELLY and LETHAMAGA JONAS MPHAHI,ELE My husband HLABIRWA A IVIAZWI LE BOLEDI And our four children GRACIOUS, LEBOGANG, TSHEGOFATSO and MOFENYI 1V DECLARATION I declare that BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS AND WIT It LIBERALS IN SOUTH AFRICA : PARADOXICAL ANTI-APARTHEID POLITICS is my own work and all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references . ......... ..... .. ........... Mabel R Maimela Date ABBREVIATIONS AICA African Independent Church Association ANC African National Congress ARM African Resistance Movement ASUSA African Student Union of South Africa ABJ Association of Black Journalists ASSECA Association for the Educational and Cultural Advancement of African People ASAMD Association of the South African Medical and Dental Association AZAPO Azanian People's Organization BC Black Consciousness BCM Black Consciousness Movement BMC Black Methodist Consultation BOSS South African Bureau of State Security BPC Black People's Convention BTH Black Theology BWF Black Women's Federation CI Christian Institute CPSA Communist Party of South Africa DPSC Detainee Parents Support Committee FCWU Food and Canning Worker's Union FEDSAW Federation of South African Women FSAW Federation of South African Women IDAF International Defence and Aid Fund IDAMASA Interdenominational African Minister's Association IUEF International University Exchange Fund NAACP National Association for the Advancement of Colored People NCAW National Council of African Women NCL National Committee for Liberation NCWSA National Council of Women of South Africa NEUM Non-European Unity Movement NP National Party NUSAS National Union of South African Students PAC Pan Africanist Congress PFP Progressive Federation Party SAAN South African Associated Newspapers SABRA South African Bureau of Racial Affairs SACC South African Council of Churches SAIRR South African Institute of Race Relations vi SAMDA South Medical and Dental Association SASM South African Student Movement SASO South African Student's Organisation SPOBA St . Peter's Old Boys Association SWAPO South West African People's Organisation TRC Truth and Reconciliation Commission UCM University Christian Movement UCT University of Cape Town UK United' Kingdom UNI S A University of South Africa USA United States of America WASA Writer's Association of South Africa WITS University of the Witwatersrand WMA World Medical Association WO Warrant Officer WUS World University Services YMCA Young Men's Christian Association YWCA Young Women's Christian Association ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis is a product of the (direct or indirect) input and concerted effort from various individuals (as well as institutions) without whom I would not have been able to complete this research . I apologise in advance any omission in acknowledgement . Any such omission is only attributable to forgetfulness on my part . I am deeply grateful for the generous support and kindness of my promoter, Professor Greg Cuthbertson and joint-promoter, Dr Lucille Twyman . Their interest in the topic, continual guidance and keen enthusiasm supplied me with the constructive guidance I needed to improve the final product .Professor Cuthbertson, in particular, was constantly involved from the early stages of thsi research . His meticulous and carefully reading and critical comments at each stage enabled the thesis to take final shape, and his support, understanding and selfless work on the final product had been indispensable . Roger Loveday has helped at all stages with editing of the text, and I am grateful to him for faithfully reflecting the meanings in my text . The following institutions and their staff provided generous help - especially in the early stages of this research : IJ The Cullen Libr at the University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg • The Harry 4ppenheimer Centre for African Studies in Cape Town • The Alan Paton Centre at the University of Natal Pietermaritzburg Branch in Pietermaritzburg My special thanks goes to the following individuals or institutions who allowed me to use their own private collections to enrich my research : Karis and Gerhart Collections (presently deposited to the University of Witwatwersrand), where I was given access to indispensable sources by Professor Gail Gerhart l Professor J .N.J Kritzinger for his private collection of UCM and Black Theology papers I Professor Ranwedzi Harry Nengwekhulu, for granting me interviews and allowing me to use his private collection of sources • Ernest Messing from the University of the Western Cape for offering me both articles and transcripts of interviews • Rhoda Tshikane in Atteridgeville for her collection of sources relating to the National Council of African Women I should like to offer my grateful thanks to all of the following individuals, families, officials and university staff for offering me such generous, kind and unstinting support and assistance : • Mary-Lynn Suttie, Subject Librarian for History, Politics and Religious Studies, who quickly and efficiently tracked down urgently required material Heziphi Napaai of the Unisa Library, was equally helpful The staff of the Unisa Library, particularly Louise Gerber of the Audio-Visual Section, for helping me with the handling of micro-film sources Mrs Bridget Theron of the Department of History, who assisted me in compiling the bibliography while