Fashioning Identity: Clothing and the Image of the Syrian in the Roman Empire by Marybeth Osowski Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Arts at Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia August, 2016 © Copyright by Marybeth Osowski, 2016 This work is dedicated to my parents, Josephine and Edward ii Table of Contents List of Figures .................................................................................................................... iv Abstract .............................................................................................................................. vi Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... vii Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 Chapter Two: Greece, Rome, and the Near East ................................................................ 7 Historical Background .................................................................................................... 7 Greek and Roman Views of the Near East ................................................................... 14 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 26 Chapter Three: Roman Views on Clothing ....................................................................... 28 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 28 Roman Men’s Clothing ................................................................................................. 33 Roman Women’s Clothing ........................................................................................... 36 Roman Views on Eastern Dress .................................................................................... 41 Political Fashion ........................................................................................................... 44 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 48 Chapter Four: Near Eastern Clothing in Greece, Rome, and Palmyra ............................. 49 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 49 Near Eastern Clothing in Greek Literature and Art ...................................................... 52 Near Eastern Clothing in Roman Literature and Art .................................................... 58 Clothing and Identity in Palmyra .................................................................................. 67 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 83 Chapter Five: Elagabalus and Roman Reactions to Syria ................................................ 85 Historical Background .................................................................................................. 85 Literary Sources on the Severans .................................................................................. 90 Elagabalus: Biographical Fact and Fiction ................................................................. 103 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 127 Chapter Six: Conclusion ................................................................................................. 129 Appendix A: Greek and Roman Images of Eastern Dress .............................................. 135 Appendix B: Palmyrene Art............................................................................................ 142 Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 151 iii List of Figures Figure 1. Scythian archer plate, by Epiktetos, Greek, 520-500 BC. Museum number 1837,0609.59, British Museum. ...................................................................................... 135 Figure 2. Kylix attributed to Douris, showing a Scythian archer and warrior with a hoplon, Greek, 500-490 BC. JHUAM B8, The Baltimore Chapter of the Archaeological Institute of America. ....................................................................................................... 135 Figure 3. Trojan archer from the west pediment of the Temple of Aphaia on Aegina, color reconstruction Photo courtesy Stiftung Archäologie, Munich. From Eti Bonn- Muller, “Carved in Living Color,” Archaeology 61.1 (2008)......................................... 136 Figure 4. Terracotta lekythos with Amazons, attributed to the Eretria Painter, Greek, ca. 420 BC. 31.11.13, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ................................................... 137 Figure 5. The Nolan Amphora, showing Greek and Persian warrior, Greek, ca. 480-70 BC. 06.1021.117. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. .................................................... 137 Figure 6. Kylix showing fighting Greek (right) and Persian (left) warriors, by the Triptolemos Painter, Greek, ca. 480 BC. A.1887.213. National Museum of Scotland. 138 Figure 7. Detail of Persians in the Alexander Mosaic, from the House of the Faun in Pompeii, Roman (possibly a reproduction of a Greek painting), ca. 100 BC. 10-04-03/20. Erich Lessing Culture and Fine Arts Archive, ARTstor. ................................................ 138 Figure 8. Modern colorized reconstruction and original of the Augustus of Prima Porta, with detail on Parthian in center right, Roman, 1st century AD. Color proposal presented by Jesús Mendiola y Emma Zahonero at Tarracoviva 2014, photograph by Rodrigo Riva ......................................................................................................................................... 139 Figure 9. Silver Denarius of Augustus, reverse, with kneeling Parthian offering standard, c. 19 BC. 91115, Wriston Art Center Galleries. ARTstor. ............................................. 139 Figure 10. Dacians on Trajan’s Column, dedicated in 113 AD. SCALA archive, ARTstor. ......................................................................................................................................... 140 Figure 11. Captive Parthian (right), the Arch of Septimius Severus, Roman, ca. 203 AD. SCALA Archives, ARTstor. ........................................................................................... 140 Figure 12. Mosaic of the Three Wise Men in the Basilica of Sant’ Apollinaire Nuovo, Ravenna, 6th century AD. SCALA Archives, ARTstor. ................................................ 141 Figure 13. Wall paintings of women showing the turban and veil, from the Hypogeum of the Three Brothers, Palmyra, 160-191 CE. University of California, San Diego. ARTstor Slide Gallery. .................................................................................................................. 142 iv Figure 14. Wall paintings of women showing the turban and veil, from the Hypogeum of the Three Brothers, Palmyra, 160-191 CE. University of California, San Diego. ARTstor Slide Gallery. .................................................................................................................. 142 Figure 15. Funerary bust of two women holding their veils, with turban and diadem also visible, Palmyra, ca. 217 AD. 125717. The British Museum. ........................................ 143 Figure 16. The ‘Beauty of Palmyra,’ featuring lavish jewelry, head ornament, turban, and veil, funerary relief bust, Palmyra, early 3rd century AD. Ny Carlsberg Glyptotekt, Copenhagen..................................................................................................................... 144 Figure 17. Young man in a Parthian costume, holding a rhyton (funeral relief from the side of a sarcophagus), Palmyra, early 3rd Century AD. AO 4084, Musée du Louvre, ARTstor........................................................................................................................... 145 Figure 18. Hypogeum of Yarhai, showing cylindrical hat and Parthian clothing on many male figures. Palmyra, 2nd century CE. BB-2050, Damascus Museum, provided by Sheila S. Blair and Jonathan M. Bloom.. ARTstor. ........................................................ 146 Figure 19. Funeral banquet, with deceased shown reclining, attended by members of his family, note priestly hat and Parthian clothing of the deceased; Palmyra, first half of 2nd century CE. 08-02-09/63, National Museum of Damascus, ARTstor. .......................... 146 Figure 20. Wall painting of Hairan (left) and wife, Palmyra, ca. 149-150 CE. Scanned from Malcom Colledge, The Art of Palmyra. ................................................................. 147 Figure 21. Honorary statue of a woman, wearing Western-looking clothing, Palmyra, ca. 200 CE. Scanned from Malcom Colledge, The Art of Palmyra. .................................... 147 Figure 22. Honorific statues of men in togas, Palmyra, ca. 200 CE. Scanned from Michael Colledge, The Art of Palmyra. .......................................................................... 148 Figure 23. Abduction of Ganymede from the Hypogeum of the Three Brothers, Palmyra, 160-191 CE. From the website, “Palmyra Tombs,” constructed by Prof. Michael Fuller, revised 21 May 2015. .....................................................................................................