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In sight and in mind: social implications of marine renewable energy Rhys Howell PhD Sociology The University of Edinburgh 2018 Declaration I declare that this thesis has been composed solely by myself and that it has not been submitted, in whole or in part, in any previous application for a degree. Except where stated otherwise by reference or acknowledgment, the work presented is entirely my own. Signed: Date: iii Abstract Scotland has significant marine energy resources and is at the forefront of the research and development of wave and tidal marine renewable energy technologies. Much of this research has focussed on the technological challenges of marine renewable energy (MRE) development, and accordingly there has been an important gap in understanding the social implications of the technology. This PhD contributes important new knowledge to the emerging field of the sociology of marine renewable energy. Previous studies have explored the many and varied grounds on which publics might come to support or oppose other low-carbon energy technologies, though to date there has been limited research into whether the same range of factors also inform social responses to MRE. This thesis presents new understanding of social responses towards MRE projects and the social impacts MRE may have on communities. Findings from eighteen months of ethnographic fieldwork, living, working, and coastal skiff rowing, on a Scottish island are presented, along with the results from a series of public dialogue workshops held in six Scottish communities. This innovative twin-track qualitative research approach provides a rich understanding of everyday life and practice in relation to community, environment and energy, and insight into some of the more intangible ways in which MRE projects may affect communities. The research shows that the strong and unique cultural and historical identity of coastal communities, together with the economic fragility of the areas, influences how MRE, and those promoting it, are perceived. Responses to energy projects depend on the perception of change that will occur as a result of the project and vary significantly both within and between communities. The data obtained show that MRE projects that are perceived to positively benefit the local area are welcomed, and that project developers and policy makers should focus as much on ameliorating positive benefits to communities as mitigating negative impacts. Planning processes that appropriately understand and negotiate these concerns are therefore required, in order to engage with communities and maximise the potential opportunities that MRE technologies present for marginal rural communities. v Lay summary Scotland’s seas have large waves and strong tides. These natural energy resources can be harnessed by innovative marine renewable energy technologies to generate electricity. In this research I focus on understanding the social implications of marine renewable energy, looking at both how communities located near to marine renewable energy projects will react to these new technologies being developed and how the technologies will impact these communities. In order to investigate this I completed two research activities: lengthy independent fieldwork on a Scottish island where marine renewable energy projects have been proposed and workshops with members of six other communities around Scotland organised by the Scottish Government. My findings suggest that people in Scotland are generally supportive of marine renewable energy projects believing that they could have a positive impact on Scottish communities. However, support for individual projects cannot be guaranteed as there are many reasons why some community members could withhold their support or come to oppose projects. The results show that whilst marine renewable energy devices are less visually intrusive than wind turbines, they are not necessarily certain to have more public support than wind energy. There have been negative public reactions to many previous wind energy projects and this research finds that all the reasons that influence community responses to wind energy projects seemingly also inform how people might react to marine renewable energy. People’s reactions to marine renewable energy projects appear to be based on their perception and understanding of several factors, including: the visual impact the project will have, the scale of the project, the fairness and transparency of the planning process, the trust that they have in decision-makers and developers, the local community context, and the positive community benefits that a project will have. The research highlights the importance of involving community members in planning processes, listening to their concerns, and utilising their local knowledge. In this way projects can be developed which are appropriate for a community and maximise both positive social responses and social impacts. vii Acknowledgements I am indebted to everybody who helped me during the course of this PhD. First, and most significantly, thank you to my supervisors. Enormous thanks to Claire and to Simon for supporting and encouraging me throughout the project, and to Rachel for helping me get over the line. I simply could not have done it without you three and your ever-sage guidance and advice, and the ever-present supply of biscuits. Thank you to everybody I met on the Island and during the Dialogue. I cannot name individuals here, but I am incredibly grateful to everyone who participated in, or helped to facilitate, both of these research components, particularly the team at the Scottish Government. Finally, thank you to my family; to my parents for their eternal support and to Anwen and Ansen for keeping me distracted. Heartfelt thanks to Beiyin for agreeing to go to the Island, sharing the adventure with me, and putting up with me throughout. 我写完了！ ix Contents Chapter 1 Introduction .........................................................................................1 Chapter 2 Context .............................................................................................. 15 Chapter 3 Literature review ................................................................................. 39 Chapter 4 Methodology ...................................................................................... 65 Chapter 5 Proem to the Island findings ............................................................... 121 Chapter 6 The Island findings............................................................................. 127 Chapter 7 The Dialogue findings......................................................................... 199 Chapter 8 Discussion ........................................................................................ 227 Chapter 9 Conclusions ...................................................................................... 247 References .......................................................................................................... 265 Appendix............................................................................................................. 291 xi Full table of contents Abstract ..................................................................................................................v Lay summary ......................................................................................................... vii Acknowledgements ................................................................................................. ix Table of Figures......................................................................................................xix Glossary ................................................................................................................xxi Chapter 1 Introduction .........................................................................................1 1.1 Marine renewable energy in Scotland ...........................................................1 1.2 Out of sight, out of mind? Social responses to marine renewable energy ...........6 1.3 Research questions and approach .............................................................. 10 Chapter 2 Context .............................................................................................. 15 2.1 Marine planning and community localism ................................................... 15 2.1.1 Marine planning in Scotland .................................................................. 15 2.1.2 Our Islands, Our Future ......................................................................... 19 2.1.3 The Highlands and Islands ....................................................................