2170-09_Anes46_04_Al-Qudrah 02-09-2009 09:34 Pagina 62 doi: 10.2143/ANES.46.0.2040710 ANES 46 (2009) 62-71 Trade Terminology among the Safaitic Arabs before Islam as Reflected in their Inscriptions Hussein AL-QUDRAH Queen Rania Institute of Tourism and Heritage The Hashemite University P. O. Box 150459 13115 Zarqa JORDAN Sultan AL-MA}ANI Queen Rania Institute of Tourism and Heritage The Hashemite University P. O. Box 150459 13115 Zarqa JORDAN Abstract This paper deals with some aspects of commerce (merchandise and trade) activi- ties as attested in the Ancient North Arabian Safaitic inscriptions. The Safaitic tribes were in close contact with some political entities in the region, such as the Nabataeans and Romans. Their inscriptions reflect certain aspects of the tribal life of the Safaites and their activities — the merchandise and trade activities, for instance. The activity of trade is discussed in this paper in the light of some terms that occurred in inscriptions. Furthermore, we can deduce that they were familiar with manufacturing salt through the expression of wÌ∂r Ìlqt mlÌ “and prepared a pitfall to extract salt”. The inscriptions, also, gave some clues on the existence of market places — for example, w q†† f zm. The social and daily life, in some cases, motivated the Bedouin to use what is so-called ‘barter’ namely, the exchange of animal products for grains and other needed things. 2170-09_Anes46_04_Al-Qudrah 02-09-2009 09:34 Pagina 63 TRADE TERMINOLOGY AMONG THE SAFAITIC ARABS 63 Introduction As it is known, those who were living in Badiyat esh-Sham, and those Safaitic communities, among them, emigrated from Arabian Peninsula, had to adapt tothe new agricultural and pastoral environment. For them the land of al-Îammad in Badiyat esh-Sham was suited to their breeding of animals and other activities.1 The principle means of subsistence and economy of the Arabian tribes in Îauran and Badiyat esh-Sham included sheep and goat pastoralism, trade and the cultivation of natural areas. In addition, the Arabian tribes, created a defensive system, had ‘tutelary guardians’, and guided the caravan trade.2 A clear picture of commerce is wanting, owing to the scarcity and ambi- guity of relevant inscriptions. In this study, we attempt to shed light on this matter through an analysis of Safaitic inscriptions.3 The Terms tgr We know little about trading goods and markets, and our knowledge is based on inscriptions. Among the vocabularies in the Safaitic inscriptions is the verb tgr “trade.”4 This verb is attested in some inscriptions and appears to be a rare sign indicating the commerce activity. It would be useful as a major indicator to examine the related vocabularies. Special attention has been paid to the inscription: l’hb bn k{mh hdr wtgr hkbn,5 which describes the organization of commerce in terms of artefact trading. Then there is the word kbn “hemming,”6 mentioned in the inscription, which casts a shadow over the activity — it appears to attest different forms of weaving for sad- dlery, the plaiting of garment, or weaving loose outer garment with sleeves.7 ’gr It can be shown that the Safaities were involved in the ‘national’ econ- omy namely, employed as workmen, and in return they were paid: lhmsk bn bhl bn ˆbs{ ˆgr hg∂l.8 1 Dussaud 1959, p. 3. 2 Masarqah 1988, p. 336. 3 Villeneuve 1988, p. 102. 4 Winnett 1957, p. 133, no 996. 5 Winnett 1957, p. 133, no 996. 6 See Al-Zabidi 1994., vol. 18, p. 471–72. 7 Payne Smith 1981, pp 1671–2. 8 CIS, no 157. 2170-09_Anes46_04_Al-Qudrah 02-09-2009 09:34 Pagina 64 64 HUSSEIN AL-QUDRAH – SULTAN AL-MA}ANI The presence of numerous basalt stone heaps in the desert, known as cairns, led some scholars to suggest that these were used as watch towers or signs along trading roads.9 It seems possible that the guides who led the car- avans used these cairns to facilitate their duty in protecting caravans.10 It is already accepted that the Nabataeans mixed with the Safaitic tribes after the fall of their state in AD 106. Many inscriptions refer to the inhabitants who lived in Harra and Hammad and who had an opportunity to learn trading methods from the Nabataeans.11 The Safaities, who lived along the eastern foot mountain, however, accompanied the Nabataeans as their assistants, and played an important role.12 ’Ì∂ The term ‘Ì∂ is companied in some inscriptions with hˆÌ∂t,13 and in some others it occurrs alone.14 Grimme interpreted it as the “selling goods”; it was also mentioned in the Lihyanite inscriptions under the same mean- ing.15 The inscription CIS 3916 examines a vital trading activity namely, the trading of horses: l Ìml bn {sm bn s{d wˆÌ∂ mÌny hfrs bÌmst ˆmny16 “Îml b. {sm b. S{d and he bought a horse with five ˆmny (?). Inscriptions have also indicated that bartering was a commercial activity. It was most likely that sheep, camels, horses and cattle, in addition to their products, were main items bartered with sedentary communities. There are few inscriptions that reveal this kind of activity. The inscription CIS 3916 indicates a payment with a measure of dry grain: lÌml bn {sm bn s{d wˆÌ∂ m Ìny hfrs bÌmst ˆmny17 “By Îml b. {sm b. s{d, and he took from Îny the horse by five ˆmny.” dwg It can be expected that peddling was also practiced. Inscriptions refer to peddlers as practicing a kind of commerce, or in “market oriented” activi- ties. This is seen in: lˆsym bn ˆn{m ∂ˆl b{d wdwg18 bbrqh ˆl (r)m fhlt nqmt19 9 Cf. W. Lancaster and F. Lancaster 1993, p. 152. 10 Dussaud 1959, p. 56. 11 ¨Ali 1976, p. 49. 12 Dussaud 1959, p. 7. 13 Grimme 1929, p. 40, no 172. 14 Winnett and Harding 1978, p. 168, no 865, CIS 3916. 15 Grimme 1929, p. 40. 16 CIS, no 3916. 17 CIS, no 3916. 18 The root dwg means “carry on commerce”, and ad-dawwaag “employee, servant, and trader”, see al-Gazri 1979, vol. 2, p. 101; al-Razi 1986, p. 83. 19 CIS, no 4447. 2170-09_Anes46_04_Al-Qudrah 02-09-2009 09:34 Pagina 65 TRADE TERMINOLOGY AMONG THE SAFAITIC ARABS 65 “By ˆsym son of ˆn{m from the tribe b{d and he peddled among brqh of the tribe (r)m, O Lt (the goddess) take vengeance.” This brings to mind the locally used word of dawwag, which means “the man who peddled in between large field-tents selling the goods that would have been carried on donkey back.” wklt In Safaitic, wklt is attested in Winnett 1957, p. 32, no 152: lgdn bn ˆs bn ˆdm bn bn Ò{d wgyb mn hwklt. This inscription has an economic aspect. The word wklt is translated by Winnett as ‘store.’20 His translation is important for understanding the nature of trade, though the Arabic lexicons are not certain on the meaning. In fact, the crucial word has a sense of agent sell- ing. wsq The term wsq is attested in the inscription CIS 2088: lÒ{d bn zÌkbnms{r wklˆ hnÌl Ìms wsq.21 “By ∑{d b. ZÌk b. Ms{r, and he guarded the valley for five wsq (?)”, points to payment by measure. Bartering was widespread in Bedouin life, which they used to exchang fat (ghee), or other animal prod- ucts for commodities provided by city or village dwellers.22 This was the same in the time of Safaitic tribes. myr It is important to keep in mind that the root myr is a key word for Safaitic method of earning. It is attested as the verb myr in the term: lwdm bn Ìlq wr{y f hlg wmyr∞23 “By Wdn b. Îlq, and he grazed in the Lg, and he brought food for sale.” The other attestation is the noun mr in the term: l{mrt bn Ò{d bn [Ìr]dn wÒyr snt whb hmlk hmr∞24 “By {mrt b. ∑{d b. [Îr]dn, and he turned back in the year that the king offered the supplies or provisions.” mlÌ The Safaitic tribesmen in Arabian Desert documented other kinds of commerce on stones. Certain inscriptions show their interest in the salt 20 Winnett 1957, p. 32, no 152. 21 CIS, no 2088. 22 Masarqah 1988, pp. 336–338. 23 Winnett 1957, p. 71, no 463. 24 CIS, no 2746. 2170-09_Anes46_04_Al-Qudrah 02-09-2009 09:34 Pagina 66 66 HUSSEIN AL-QUDRAH – SULTAN AL-MA}ANI (mlÌ) trade. They used all the possible ways to be commercially active and serve others in surrounding areas. They also took advantage of their envi- ronment around to help them. The term is presented in one of the inscrip- tions: l{ty bn wqs bn slm wmlÌ fhlt slm wgnmt wmÌlt l∂ y{wr∞25 “By {Ty b. Wqs b. Slm and he trades in salt. And sterility to whom destroys (the inscrip- tion). The Arabic lexicon supports the expression: “to get trade in salt”, in other cases, “provided by salt.”26 This commercial activity was mentioned in Canaanite texts,27 mainly as mlÌm. At Hatra, mlÌ denotes to mine salt, and in Aramaic mlÌ to salt-herb.28 Other Safaitic inscriptions indicate the pres- ence of a “salt-mine”, where the Safaities extracted the salt. This is sup- ported by the text: lzdˆl bn ngft bn ˆ‘ly bn ∂Ìy bn Ìwq bn kwnt bn sw{ wÌ∂r Ìlqt mlÌ w∂kr wˆmt wslÌ hˆbl mdbr wzr{ hrÌbt fhlt slm wnqˆt l∂ y{wr.29 The term wÌ∂r Ìlqt mlÌ means “prepared a pitfall to extract salt”.