Western Michigan University ScholarWorks at WMU Dissertations Graduate College 8-2013 The Qur'anic Jesus: A Study of Parallels with Non-Biblical Texts Brian C. Bradford Western Michigan University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations Part of the History of Religion Commons, and the History of Religions of Western Origin Commons Recommended Citation Bradford, Brian C., "The Qur'anic Jesus: A Study of Parallels with Non-Biblical Texts" (2013). Dissertations. 190. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations/190 This Dissertation-Open Access is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate College at ScholarWorks at WMU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at WMU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. THE QUR’ANIC JESUS: A STUDY OF PARALLELS WITH NON-BIBLICAL TEXTS by Brian C. Bradford A dissertation submitted to the Graduate College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of History Western Michigan University August 2013 Doctoral Committee: Paul Maier, Ph.D., Chair Howard Dooley, Ph.D. Timothy McGrew, Ph.D. THE QUR’ANIC JESUS: A STUDY OF PARALLELS WITH NON-BIBLICAL TEXTS Brian C. Bradford, Ph.D. Western Michigan University, 2013 This study examines which texts and religious communities existed that could well have contributed to Muhammad’s understanding of Jesus. The most important finding is that the Qur’anic verses mentioning Jesus’ birth, certain miracles, and his crucifixion bear close resemblance to sectarian texts dating as early as the second century. Accordingly, the idea that such verses from the Qur’an involving Jesus are original productions of the seventh century should be reconsidered. The research covers a series of significant topics that support these findings. They include theological conflicts in third century Arabia; the interaction between Christian monks, Saracens, Arabs, and Ishmaelites; sectarian texts in and near Arabia that likely formed a model for the Qur’anic Jesus; initial reactions to Muhammad; and an overall analysis of the verses in the Qur’an that mention Jesus. This study validates the conclusion that certain non-biblical, Jesus-based narratives remained current in and near Arabia and were accessible to Muhammad. As a result, Muhammad presented a Jesus considered unique to his personal religious experiences. This Jesus, however, appears to have developed from non-biblical, pre-Islamic texts and the groups who kept these stories alive. Copyright by Brian C. Bradford 2013 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to offer thanks and appreciation to my advisor, Dr. Paul L. Maier, for his enthusiasm and support throughout the duration of this project. His guidance, advice, and expertise remained positive from day one. This research could not have been completed without his resilient intervention in the academic arena. I must also thank two other distinguished faculty members at Western Michigan University, Dr. Timothy McGrew and Dr. Howard Dooley, who, as members of my committee, showed an eagerness and commitment to my project. Their dedication truly enabled the completion of this dissertation. I would also like to pay special tribute to Dr. David Ede, of the Department of Comparative Religion at Western Michigan University, who supported and guided my project through its initial formative phases. Despite his tragic death in September 2008, his profound direction led to the core of my research. He is indeed deeply missed. Thanks also go to Dr. Rozanne Elder, of Western Michigan University, and Dr. John Robertson, of Central Michigan University, who aided in the early stages of my research. ii Acknowledgments—-continued Furthermore, I have to thank my parents who have been my support and my pillars of strength through these twenty years of my college experience and everyday life. I truly owe them my life and my love. Most of all, I must offer sincere adoration and love to my wife, who has tolerated me for the nine years I dedicated to this project. Without her patience and encouragement I would probably have abandoned this research in the darkest of hours. Brian C. Bradford iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......................................... ii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS................................... vii INTRODUCTION............................................ 1 Christian Sources .............................. 2 Muslim Sources ................................. 5 Secondary Studies .............................. 12 CHAPTER 1 CHRISTIAN ORIGINS IN ARABIA ....................... 20 Paul’s Trip to Arabia .......................... 20 Pantaenus and “Middle India” ................... 24 The Gospel of the Hebrews ...................... 29 2 ORIGEN, BERYLLUS, ELCHASAITES, AND SARACEN-JEWS ... 33 Origen and Arabian Christianity ................ 33 The Views of Beryllus of Bostra ................ 36 Origen’s Return to Arabia ...................... 37 The Elchasaites ................................ 38 Saracens Who Lived as Jews ..................... 43 3 MONKS, SARACENS, ARABS, AND ISHMAELITES ........... 47 Christians Held Captive in Arabia .............. 49 Characteristics of Desert Monks ................ 52 iv Table of Contents—-continued CHAPTER Sources of Monk-Arab Interaction ............... 56 Syrian Ascetics and Arabs ...................... 67 Moses and Queen Mauia of the Saracens .......... 72 Monks in the Qur’an ............................ 73 Muhammad and the Monk Bahira ................... 77 Muhammad’s Ascetic Attributes .................. 87 4 QUR’ANIC PARALLELS AND THE PANARION ............... 94 Introduction to the Panarion ................... 96 Sectarianism in the Panarion ................... 101 Parallel Verses: The Birth of Jesus ............ 112 Parallel Verses: Jesus Speaking as an Infant ... 115 Parallel Verses: Jesus and Clay Birds .......... 118 Parallel Verses: The Crucifixion of Jesus ...... 123 Parallel Conclusions ........................... 135 5 INFLUENCES ON MUHAMMAD ............................ 138 Waraqa ibn Naufal .............................. 138 Salman ......................................... 143 Other Possible Influences ...................... 144 Residents of Mecca ............................. 145 Critics of the Qur’an and Muhammad ............. 149 Initial Reactions to Muhammad .................. 154 v Table of Contents—-continued CHAPTER Stephen of Alexandria, d.c.630................ 154 The Doctrina Jacobi, c.634.................... 155 Bishop Sebeos, c.660s......................... 157 A Chronicler of Khuzistan, c.660s............. 158 Jacob of Edessa, d.c.708...................... 159 Theodore Bar Koni (Eighth Century)............ 160 A Monk of Beth Hale and an Arab Notable, c.717......................................... 161 John of Damascus (Eighth Century)............. 163 Theophanes the Confessor, d.c.818............. 165 Conclusions on Initial Reactions ............... 166 CONCLUSION.............................................. 169 APPENDIX: JESUS PASSAGES IN THE QUR’AN.................. 174 BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................ 180 vi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AJA American Journal of Archaeology BASOR Bulletin of the American School of Oriental Research BSOAS Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies CSCO Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society JBL Journal of Biblical Literature JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies JRS Journal of Roman Studies JTS Journal of Theological Studies PG Patrologia Graeca PL Patrologia Latina PMLA Publication of the Modern Language Association of America vii INTRODUCTION Jesus of Nazareth holds a very special place for all Muslims. He is mentioned over thirty times in the Qur’an and is called Messiah, Spirit of God, and a prophet of God who performed miracles and raised the dead with God’s permission.1 It is also believed that Jesus will come at the end times to judge humanity and usher in a Muslim-era. Since the traditional belief is that the Qur’an was the collection of Muhammad’s revelations, it is fair to ask what specific texts and religious communities existed that were available to him and may have influenced his understanding of Jesus. This study will largely rely on the primary sources that detail the specific episodes and personalities that contributed to Muhammad’s understanding of Jesus. In addition, there are sources that address the various texts and religious communities that can be identified as possible influences on Muhammad. 1 For these passages in the Qur’an, see Appendix. 1 Christian Sources Christian sources range from the account of Paul’s trip to Arabia2 to sources which recorded the reactions to Muhammad’s initial religious movement. Paul went to Arabia immediately following his conversion, but his activities there were not recorded. He did, however, prepare for his future mission work. In the second century Pantaenus of Alexandria traveled to modern south Arabia and found a Christian society that possessed a Hebrew version of The Gospel of Matthew that, according to Eusebius, had been left by the apostle Bartholomew.3 Origen dealt with growing 2 A starting point to classify Arabia and Arabs is the Geography of Strabo (64 BCE-24 CE): “And after Mesopotamia (are the countries) this side of the Euphrates. And these are the whole of Arabia Felix, being bounded by the whole of the Arabian Gulf and the Persian Gulf,