WHAT IS WRONG WITH THIS PICTURE?: INDIGENOUS ARTISTS CONTEST THE "PLACE" OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLE IN CANADA By Paula E. Loh A thesis submitted to the Department of Geography in conformity with the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts Queen’s University Kingston, Ontario, Canada May, 2015 Copyright © Paula E. Loh, 2015 "We see the world, not as it is, but as we are." ~ Stephen R. Covey, The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People ii Abstract Indigenous artists challenge cultural stereotypes by creating images that contest preconceived notions of the "place" of Indigenous people held by the Canadian population at large. This thesis research explores the question of identity and stereotypes and how this is transgressed through the work of contemporary Indigenous artists in Canada to adjust the position of Indigenous people in the social hierarchy that controls their "place." Many Indigenous artists incorporate political statements into their artworks that challenge the ongoing stereotypes that assign Indigenous people to their "place"; the political commentary is often the only aspect of their work that identifies it as "Indigenous," with a variety of techniques, media, and styles used in the creation of the art, reflecting the individuality of the artists. The normativity of whiteness and its impact on ideology and politics is examined, both in historical and contemporary times. Hegemonic images have promoted the Eurocentric concept that the White "race" is the norm and the standard by which others should be judged and put in their "place," contributing to the objectification of Indigenous peoples and the creation of the stereotypical "Indian," such as the "noble savage," and the "ignoble savage." Images created by contemporary Indigenous artists transgress these cultural stereotypes. The re-labeling and marketing of Indigenous "artifacts" as "art" reflects changing attitudes in the value placed on the work of Indigenous artists, transforming many from anonymous artisans into renowned artists. This recognition as creators of art provides opportunities for Indigenous artists to make public statements, with their work being widely displayed under the classification of contemporary art. The Sakahàn International Indigenous Art Exhibition held by the National Gallery of Canada in 2013 embodies the momentum that is building within the Indigenous artistic community; Sakahàn is the largest exhibition of any kind mounted by the National Gallery, to date, and is also the largest worldwide exhibition of Indigenous art. iii Identity is constantly changing in relation to events and circumstances; as the place of Indigenous people continues to be contested by artists, it will edge further on the continuum towards being "in place" instead of "out of place." iv Acknowledgements This thesis was made possible through the assistance of several people. First, I thank my supervisor Dr. Audrey Kobayashi for her guidance throughout the research and writing process. I would also like to extend sincere thanks to the staff and faculty of the Department of Geography and to my fellow graduate students at Queen’s University for their support and enthusiasm throughout my time at the university. I would like to thank members of the staff at the National Gallery of Canada for the support they provided during the busy time of the Sakahàn Exhibition, in particular curators Greg Hill and Christine Lalonde. Thanks also go to former NGC curator, Marie Routledge, for the many conversations that we had about Indigenous art, and Sakahàn in particular. It was a pleasure to meet all of you. Finally, I would like to recognize the support and encouragement of my friends and staff members at Surf's Up!, Mahmood Rowghani and Margaret Wemp, who minimized demands on my time by the business while I completed this degree, and my children, Marissa and Harrison, who enthusiastically supported my return to university. v Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................ iii Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................................... v List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................. vii Chapter 1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 1 Sakahàn International Indigenous Art Exhibition ..................................................................................... 2 The Big Picture ......................................................................................................................................... 8 Methodology ........................................................................................................................................... 11 Thesis Structure ...................................................................................................................................... 13 Chapter 2 Theoretical Base ......................................................................................................................... 15 The Normativity of Whiteness − Ideology & Politics ............................................................................ 15 The Normativity of Whiteness − Imagery .............................................................................................. 22 Historically Defining "Indigenous" Identity ........................................................................................... 31 Defining "Indigenous" Identity through Stereotypes .............................................................................. 36 The Power of Words & Images to Create & Contest Stereotypes .......................................................... 44 Chapter 3 Stereotypical Images of Indigenous Peoples .............................................................................. 53 Cultural Objects ...................................................................................................................................... 54 Mass Entertainment ................................................................................................................................ 57 Government............................................................................................................................................. 60 National Identity & Tourism ................................................................................................................... 63 Sports & Marketing ................................................................................................................................ 66 Chapter 4 The Place of Indigenous Art and Artists .................................................................................... 69 Defining "Indigenous" Art ...................................................................................................................... 69 Challenging Stereotypes Through Images .............................................................................................. 72 Chapter 5 Sakahàn International Indigneous Art Exhibition ...................................................................... 76 Chapter 6 Conclusion .......................................................................................... ..................................... 112 References………………………………………………………………………………….…………... 118 Appendix A: General Research Ethics Board (GREB) Approval………………………….…….……...127 Appendix B: National Gallery of Canada (NGC) Letter of Permission…………………..……………..128 vi List of Figures Figure 1.1 Sakahàn International Indigenous Art Exhibition at the National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa. Photo: Paula Loh. .......................................................................................................................................... 2 Figure 1.2 Terrance Houle, Untitled #3, 2004, from the series Urban Indian. Photo © Terrance Houle...6 Figure 2.1 Henry Mayhew and George Cruickshank, All the world going to see the Great Exhibition of 1851, The British Library, London. ©The British Library Board (12620.d.15) ......................................... 19 Figure 2.2 The White Man's Burden, Pears' Soap advertisement, 1899 ©The British Library Board (P.P.6383.ae) ............................................................................................................................................... 22 Figure 2.3 Henry S. Marks. The Birth of Civilization – A Message from the Sea, 1885, Pears soap advertisement, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University. .......................................23 Figure 2.4 Harper's Young People, An Illustrated Weekly, 1884. Ivory Soap Collection, Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution .................................................24 Figure 2.5 James Inglis. Group of Indians at the Lacrosse Tournament, Oct. 9, 1869. Canadian Illustrated News, vol. 1, no. 1, Library and Archives Canada. 783 ............................................................................. 25 Figure 2.6 William Notman. Kahnawake Lacrosse Club, Montreal, QC, 1867. McCord Museum, Montreal, QC. I-29099.5 ............................................................................................................................. 25