University of Calgary PRISM: University of Calgary's Digital Repository Graduate Studies The Vault: Electronic Theses and Dissertations 2021-03-02 Indian Residential Schools: Perspectives of Blackfoot Confederacy People Fox, Terri-Lynn Fox, T.-L. (2021). Indian Residential Schools: Perspectives of Blackfoot Confederacy People (Unpublished doctoral thesis). University of Calgary, Calgary, AB. http://hdl.handle.net/1880/113142 doctoral thesis University of Calgary graduate students retain copyright ownership and moral rights for their thesis. You may use this material in any way that is permitted by the Copyright Act or through licensing that has been assigned to the document. For uses that are not allowable under copyright legislation or licensing, you are required to seek permission. Downloaded from PRISM: https://prism.ucalgary.ca UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY Indian Residential Schools: Perspectives of Blackfoot Confederacy People by Terri-Lynn Fox (Aai’piihkwikomotaakii) A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY GRADUATE PROGRAM IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH CALGARY, ALBERTA MARCH, 2021 © Terri-Lynn Fox 2021 English Abstract This qualitative research project explored two main themes: the Indian residential school (IRS) settlement agreement for survivors of federally funded and church-run institutions, and the participants’ perspectives (N = 16) on the apology to the survivors and subsequent generations that have been affected. I focus on the First Nation population of southern Alberta, specifically the Blackfoot Confederacy (Siksikaitsitapi). I use a Siksikaitsitapi lens and methodology on their experiences at an IRS, the IRS settlement, the Canadian government’s apology to former students, and the status of reconciliation as a whole. Criteria for participant inclusion were being an IRS survivor and a member of the Blackfoot Confederacy. Semistructured interviews revealed that receiving the IRS compensation led to survivors reliving their trauma and that money did not buy happiness or foster healing. Themes related to the IRS apology included its lack of positive reception and lack of sincerity; some stated they did not watch it, whereas others shared it was emotional for them to view. Other common factors that affected participants while in an IRS were loneliness, pain, abuse, and being unable to speak Blackfoot or engage in Blackfoot cultural practices. Learning from our shared past, Canadians must lean towards trusting and respectful acts of reconciliation, and respectful relationships, which form strong partnerships for all. A Siksikaitsitapi framework is provided as a starting point for relearning, rebuilding, renewing, and restorying after 500 years of decolonization. Using the framework, all stakeholders can begin to understand and heal issues relating to overall health and well-being from within an Indigenous lens and methodology. This approach respectfully honours the 7 generations before us and the 7 generations that will come after us. Keywords: apology, Blackfoot Confederacy, healing, Indian residential schools, IRS, reconciliation, Siksikaitsitapi, survivor ii Siksikaitsipowahsin Abstract Amoyi aawakinao’takssini sinaaksisini ihtsitsi’poyo’pa Siksikaitsitapiiyiwa manistssaiksistttaissksinoahsaawa annikska itotoissksinima’tsaiksi aamostska Iitopiattsaahpi Niitsitapitaissksinima’tstohkio’pistsi; ki aahkaattsitssa’tsiisi annohka niitohtsipoinihtaisskoahpi Aokakihtsimaiks (N = 16), ki Apology. Aakattsitssopya’psskska’tssi’pa otaaniihpi anniksk isopoahtsi’sataiksi, aakattsittssa’tsii’pi annistsi sinaaksiistsi manistohtsi’poyihpiaawa aohakihtsimaiksi; isskoohsik, sokinaapioohsini (Niitsitapiiwa manistaotsistapi’tsii’piaawa ki naapikooaiksi manistaotsistapi’tsii’piaawa); niitstssksinima’tsaahpi Niitsitapiiwa annistka (Itaopiattsaahpi Niitsitapitaissksinima’tstohkio’pistsi), ki annohk issksinima’tstohkssini); ki niitaisokinaapioohso’pi aakitsinohtoo’piaawa annika niitaakawattaatoo’pi issohtsika. Aamoy aawakinao’takssini mattsitssa’tsii’pa manitsitsinikaapi annoo Canada, ki Naapiikoaiksi manistaotsistapi’tsii’piaawa akakihtsimanistsi, ki annistsiaokiaawa ihtaayissitapiiyaawa manistaakokakihtsimatoo’piaawa niitaisoksistomio’pi, niitaisokinaapioohso’pi, issksinima’tstohkssini, ki’akakihtsimaanistsi. Omiksi isopowahtsi’sataiksi aaniiyaawa, ikakaitapiyi ihtakanaiksi aawaahpitsimmohsini/ikkihkiniitakssini amoksisska itotoisssinima’tsaiksi annistska Itaopiattsaahpi Niitsitapitaissksinima’tstohkio’pistsi; imaniiyaawa ki ikohkssaana’piiwa, noohitssao’ohkoyoohtowayaawa. Ooki, tokskammiksi aaniiyaawa otatsimoihkaanowawaayi ki niitsiitsitapissksinima’tsaahpiaawa ihtomanisttayika’kimaayaawa ki amostsiyayi ihtsspommohssiyaawa maahkohtssawattaikkihkinii’takssaawa niitakanahpiaawa otaitaopissaawa annistska Itaopiattsaahpi Niitsitapitaissksima’tstohkio’pistsi. Ooki, tsa aakoohkanistohtsiistapokakio’pa amoistsi otsitsinikatoo’piaawa omiiksisska ikamotsiipioohssiksi? Ooki tsa aakohkanistohtsisstapiiyo’pa amoistsi issohtsika? Ikakaaoyi manistakohtsoksissitapiihpi iii Siksikaitsitapiyiwa amoy aawakinao’takssini. Aahko’tsitskomahksikiipippitapiyi Niitsitapiiksi ihtakanaiksi annistsi Itaopiattsaahpi Niisitapitaissksinima’tstohkio’pistsi ki amohka maka’pookakihsimaani; ki annihkayi iikohto’totama’piiwa aahkstamaisinai’sin anniksk ikamotssipiohssiksi otsisinikssowawaistsi ki ahkitaisaanisto’saawa, ki aahoohkattohtotsiistapaisokskso’kowammotsii’yopa, ki aakohkattsitonnatsitapiiyi annikska aayinaiksi, aotoy’kiaiksi, ki aakoohkattsitohkanaisoksikso’kowammmotssiyo’pa. iv Acknowledgements I’d like to acknowledge within this Mokakyomahsinaksin—Wise Big Writing: Those who suffered at the hands of colonizers, oppressors, assimilators, and abusers . My mom and dad, O’taikimakii ki Ihkitsikam, who were quiet for so many years about their experiences in an IRS, yet who overcame the pain and trauma through reconnection of their Spirit with Creator, and shared their love with us . My children, Aawaakomootsiwa—Ross, Ipikstakii—Courtney, Sinohpiakii—Chate-Lane, and Okakiakii—Chondra, who have blessed me each and every day with their love, laughter, teachings, generosity, and kindness. You are my purpose . My grandchildren, Ti’en—Siipiyapoo, Tsisga—Niitaahtaan, Scotty—Kiitokiiwa, Tasitsa—Aipootoo, Kenneth—Naapima, and Tate—Oa’ka, who have filled my life with so much more than I could imagine. Your precious little souls have so much love and light to share with the rest of the world . My siblings, Naato’saakii, Iitsoyoohkomi, Paahtsi’kayiiksao’kaasim, Aikitsttaa, kii Nato’waawaahkaaki, for their unconditional love and support throughout my life . My extended kin, and for their children and grandchildren in turn . For the seven generations that came before me, that lived, survived, prayed, fought, and died for us . For the seven generations that come after me, that they continue the plight of our survival and that they overcome—Kaamotaan . for the seven generations that will come after them . For all Peoples, on Turtle Island, that we may reconcile, that we may practice and know Kaamotaan . that we may live a long life, Misommipaitapiiyssin . v For you, for me, for us—a shared collective experience, may we walk together on this sacred journey . This Mokakyomahsinaksin is also to say thank you, to show my gratitude, to show my honour and trust in our ancient and holy ways, Kaaahsinnooniksi. Their teachings work, they feed our soul, they guide us, and they keep us humble and honest. I’d like to humbly acknowledge my family, my older sisters and brother, and my parents who assisted in translating English words to Blackfoot. Special thanks to the loving memory of my uncle, Omahksipiitaa— Marvin Fox, who translated the English version of the abstract into Blackfoot. As this project has undergone several drafts and supervisors, the abstract has been reviewed since Omahksipiitaa’s passing. I’d like to thank Api’soomaahka—William Singer, III, for ensuring the translation reflects the Blackfoot context. I’d like to modestly thank my committee members, Dr. D. Louie, Dr. K. Lenters, Dr. A. Hanson, and Dr. J. Fields of the Werklund School of Education for their support and guidance. I’d like to send genuine thanks to Dr. J. Ottmann, Dr. D. Smith, Dr. H. Devine, and Dr. J. Frideres, for their gentle guidance along my journey. A heartfelt thank you to Dr. E. Duran for sharing your teachings with me. To my editor, Karen Crosby, who worked endlessly and patiently with me for several months, and those who assisted and guided me throughout my PhD journey, a humble thanks. I am grateful for the financial contributions from Red Crow Community College, Frank and Isabella Ann Russell Foundation, Indigenous Graduate Award (University of Calgary), Network Environments for Aboriginal Health Research, and the Interdisciplinary Graduate Program. A humble thank you to Wayne, Alice and Marie. vi Dedication I dedicate this Mokakyomahsinaksin—Wise Big Writing—to the loving memory of my mother, Otaakimaakii, and to the living memory of my father, Iihkitsikam. Their unconditional love speaks volumes and has contributed to who I am today. As survivors, they reconciled and forgave, including themselves. My mother lived a vibrant life and taught me, by way of modelling, to be a strong Siksikaitsitapi woman and mother. I walk an academic journey due to her belief in achieving credentials not only to be a change agent, but as part of my own survival to provide comfortably for my family. Mom, thank you for continuing