The Quality of Political Deliberation on Twitter Jareh Alotaibi A thesis submitted in partial of the requirements of University of East Anglia for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy SEPTEMBER 30, 2019 UNIVERSITY OF EAST ANGLIA Copyright: This work is the intellectual property of the author. You may copy up to 5% of this work for private study, or personal, non-commercial research. Any re-use of the information contained within this document should be fully referenced, quoting the author, title, university, degree level and pagination. Queries or requests for any other use, or if a more substantial copy is required, should be directed in the owner(s) of the Intellectual Property Rights. 1 Abstract This thesis explores how Twitter users discuss political issues in Saudi Arabia and how social and religious values impact on the quality of deliberation. Its three case studies are: women’s political participation; the housing shortage in Saudi Arabia; and unlawful use of public property. Based on the analyses of 12,093 tweets and 27 interviews with Twitter users in Saudi Arabia, this thesis argues that public debate is rational, respectful, focused and diverse. Both men and women participate in and exchange a range of attitudes towards government decisions. There is evidence to suggest that Twitter users criticise and challenge officials, clerics and established social values. Based on these findings, this thesis suggests that public deliberation about sensitive issues in Saudi society corresponds with key elements of public deliberation as it is envisioned in Western theories of citizen engagement in the public sphere. Some Twitter users perceive this kind of participation as an act of good citizenship. The analysis of tweets and interviews in this study demonstrate Twitter users’ sense of connectedness towards their society and fellow citizens. On the other hand, the results also confirmed that the quality of political deliberation is impacted on by government censorship, Twitter users’ self- censorship and social and religious values. 2 Acknowledgments Thanks to God for giving me the courage to complete this thesis. I am deeply grateful to my supervisor Dr. Sanna Inthorn for her support and encouragement during the period of my research, where she provided me with great advice at all stages. A special thanks and appreciation: to my parents Ushba and Fares and my brothers and sisters. I would like to deeply thank my family, Sayea, Fawziah, Abduallah, Shoq, and Fares for their continuous support and encouragement. Finally, I would like to thank all of my friends, relatives and colleagues who have consistently provided support and friendship. Without their prayers, I would not be where I am today. 3 Contents Abstract...................................................................................................................................... 2 Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................................... 3 List of Figures ...........................................................................................................................10 List of Tables ............................................................................................................................13 Chapter 1 ..................................................................................................................................15 1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................15 1.2 Research Contribution ........................................................................................................17 1.3 Research Rationale .............................................................................................................18 1.4 Research Methodology: ......................................................................................................20 1.5 Research Questions: ...........................................................................................................21 1.6 Research Organization:.......................................................................................................22 1.7 The Structure of the Research: ...........................................................................................23 Chapter 2 ..................................................................................................................................25 The Political Sphere of Saudi Arabia .........................................................................................25 2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................25 2.1.1 Saudi Arabia: A Nation’s Profile ................................................................................25 2.1.2 The Demographics ....................................................................................................27 2.1.3 The Political System of Saudi Arabia .........................................................................28 2.1.4 The Basic Law of Governance ..................................................................................30 2.1.5 The Council of Ministers ............................................................................................32 2.1.6 The Saudi Parliament ................................................................................................33 2.1.7 Municipal Elections ...................................................................................................35 2.2 The Media System in Saudi Arabia ..................................................................................38 2.2.1 Saudi Newspapers, Radio and TV ............................................................................39 2.2.2 Saudi Media Laws and Regulations ..........................................................................42 4 2.3 Political deliberation on Twitter in the Middle East and Saudi Arabia ...............................45 2.4 The three case studies ....................................................................................................50 2.4.1 Women’s Position in Saudi Arabia ............................................................................51 2.4.2 The Housing Shortage ..............................................................................................58 2.4.3 Opposing Unlawful Use of Public Property in Saudi Arabia .......................................61 2.4.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................63 Chapter 3 ..................................................................................................................................64 Deliberative Democracy ............................................................................................................64 3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................64 3.2 Deliberation .....................................................................................................................64 3.3 Types of Deliberation .......................................................................................................66 3.4 The Positives and Negatives of Deliberation ....................................................................67 3.5 Evaluating Deliberation ....................................................................................................70 3.6 Criteria for Assessing the Quality of the Deliberation .......................................................71 3.6.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................71 3.6.2 Rationality .................................................................................................................71 3.6.3 Reciprocity ................................................................................................................74 3.6.4 Respect .....................................................................................................................75 3.6.5 Diversity ....................................................................................................................76 3.6.6 Relevance of the Posts to the Discussion Topic ........................................................77 3.6.7 Openness..................................................................................................................77 3.7 Media and Deliberative Democracy .................................................................................79 3.8 Influence of Social Media and Government Restrictions on the Nature of Deliberation ....80 3.9 Citizenship .......................................................................................................................82 3.10 Conclusion .....................................................................................................................85 Chapter 4 ..................................................................................................................................86 Study Design, Process and Methodology ..................................................................................86 5 4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................86 4.2