International Journal of Caring Sciences May – August 2019 Volume 12 | Issue 2| Page 1218 Special Article An Examination of Positivist and Critical Realist Philosophical Approaches to Nursing Research Phil Coleman, FSfET, MEd, BSc (Hons), Dip N, Cert Ed, RMN Staff Tutor/Senior Lecturer, School of Health, Wellbeing & Social Care, Faculty of Wellbeing, Education & Language Studies, The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, United Kingdom Correspondence: Phil Coleman, FSfET, MEd, BSc (Hons), Dip N, Cert Ed, RMN, Staff Tutor/Senior Lecturer, School of Health, Wellbeing & Social Care, Faculty of Wellbeing, Education & Language Studies, The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, United Kingdom Email: [email protected] Abstract This paper emphasises the importance for researchers to explicitly locate their work within a philosophical framework. It examines the ontological, epistemological and methodological similarities and differences of Positivism and Critical Realism; highlighting the strengths and weaknesses of these philosophical approaches in relation to nursing research. Whilst acknowledging several limitations and risks associated with undertaking research from a critical realist perspective it concludes that this perspective still appears to provide a more appropriate foundation for systematic enquiry within the discipline of nursing than is achieved by adopting a positivist approach to such investigation. Key words: Positivism, Critical, Realism, ontology, epistemology, methodology, nursing, research Introduction describe the scientific paradigm, traditionally associated with the study of the natural world, According to Wainwright (1997, p.1263), ‘ontol- being applied to research in the social world ogy is what exists, epistemology is how we can (Cohen, Manion & Morrison 2011). Although come to know about it and methodology is the positivism was a dominant epistemological means of acquiring this knowledge’ . Research paradigm during the twentieth century (Gray questions and the methods employed to answer 2018) more recently it has been under sustained them should be founded on a specific methodo- attack (Patomaki & Wright 2000). Advocates of logical perspective (Ryan 2018). ‘ Methodology, critical realism, also known as neomodernism in turn, reflects an underlying philosophy com- (Parpio et al 2013), which was developed in the prising an ontological view and associated epis- late twentieth century by the British philosophers temological assumptions’ and so a key consid- Roy Bhaskar and Rom Harré (Bergin, Wells & eration associated with creating and answering Owen 2008) have contributed to this attack. research questions is the researcher’s philosophi- cal position (Bisman 2010, p.5). To determine During the last four decades critical realism has whether a philosophical orientation is suitable to gained ‘ prominence as an alternative research address a given research question, one must un- framework particularly in the social sciences but derstand its underpinnings (Schiller 2015) and be also in nursing ’ (Terry 2013, p.62). This paper able to articulate and justify this approach (Scott will examine positivism and critical realism in 2007). Doing so also allows readers to assess the terms of their ontologies, epistemologies and appropriateness of the selected methodology methodologies; evaluating their strengths and (Wilson & McCormack 2006). weaknesses in relation to nursing research. Positivism and Critical Realism have been Ontology identified as two common scientific philosophies Broadly speaking ‘the ontological position of (Miller 2010, Ryan 2018). The term positivism positivism is one of realism’ (Scotland 2012, was first employed by Auguste Comte, a p.10) which suggests that reality is external to the nineteenth-century French philosopher, to www.internationaljournalofcaringsciences.org International Journal of Caring Sciences May – August 2019 Volume 12 | Issue 2| Page 1219 individual (Gray 2018); hence there is one the transitive, or ‘our thinking of it’ (Wikgren universal truth (Bisman 2010, Kennedy 2013) 2005, p.14). Since it is considered impossible for that positivists believe is ‘ not mediated by our a researcher to ever entirely apprehend reality senses’ (Scotland 2012, p.10). Positivism is also (McEvoy & Richards 2006), ‘ ontology does not a form of empiricism (Ryan 2018) which depend on epistemology’ (Øgland 2017, p.6) and maintains that knowledge is derived from science must rely on the development of socially experience of the world (Wikgren 2005). As well produced theories designed to enhance as being objective, positivism views reality as understanding of this intransitive dimension relatively constant and quantifiable (Bassey whilst recognising that such theories are 2001, Hesse-Biber 2010, Dierontitou 2014), so it potentially fallible and limited (Bergin, Wells & is possible to accurately describe, record and Owen 2008). Moreover, McGhee & Grant (2017, causally explain phenomena within both the p.848) argue that since ‘all human beings gather natural and social worlds (Bisman 2010, McGhee and understand information through a worldview & Grant 2017). which includes histories, prospects, narratives, mental models and cultural norms’ it is Positivists argue that to enable the facts to speak impossible for social science researchers to ever for themselves requires ‘scientific observation be neutral and wholly objective and that ‘ a (as opposed to philosophical speculation)’ (Gray failure to recognise this results in the ontic 2018 p,24) undertaken in a value-free, or neutral, fallacy’ . way (Darlaston Jones 2007). Such scientific observation involves the testing of hypotheses Bhaskar (2008) develops the notion of transitive related to existing explanations or ‘laws’, termed and intransitive knowledge by proposing that deductivism , and the gathering of facts that reality is both differentiated and stratified within enable new laws to be developed, known as three levels. The empirical level includes inductivism (Bryman 2016). Indeed, the experienced or observed events, the actual level falsification of hypotheses, or the potential for all events which occur irrespective of whether we them to be shown to be false (Collier 1994), is experience them, whilst the causal level deemed a fundamental positivist requirement for addresses the powers, structures and mechanisms the acquisition of a robust scientific knowledge which generate events, and which may not be of reality (Bergin, Wells & Owen 2008). open to empirical measurement (Houston 2001). For critical realists, therefore, the fundamental In common with positivism, critical realism goal of research is not to formulate universal ‘offers a shared ontology and epistemology for laws but to ‘ develop deeper levels of explanation the natural and social sciences’ (Bergin, Wells and understanding’ (McEvoy & Richards 2006, & Owen 2008, p.169), recognises the existence p.69). of a world independent of a researcher’s knowledge of it (Smith 2006, Clark, Lissel & Epistemology Davis 2008, Williams, Rycroft-Malone & Burton Positivism prioritizes epistemology over 2016) and ‘treats science as providing the most ontology; concentrating on establishing what or secure source of knowledge’ (Hammersley 2002 how social phenomena occur, rather than why p.35). In contrast, however, critical realism is (Grix 2002, O'Mahoney & Vincent 2014) and ‘founded upon a priori or necessary truths about presents research results in a descriptive and the nature of the world’ (McEvoy & Richards factual format (Scotland 2012). This is because 2006, p.69). the positivist epistemological position is ‘based It asserts that the world is ‘ composed not only of on a belief that causality is directly related to events, states of affairs, experiences, impressions effect’ and that only the observable can and discourses but also underlying structures, legitimately be considered to reflect reality powers and tendencies’ (Patomaki & Wright (Williams, Rycroft-Malone & Burton 2016, p.3). 2000, p.223) , much of which cannot be observed To establish the nature of reality, one must (Wainwright 1997). observe and measure the world in an objective Critical realism therefore proposes the existence and unbiased way; striving to minimise of two dimensions of knowledge; the intransitive , researcher intervention and so eliminate the ‘a reality independent of what we think of it’ , and potentially damaging effect of individual values www.internationaljournalofcaringsciences.org International Journal of Caring Sciences May – August 2019 Volume 12 | Issue 2| Page 1220 and beliefs on the credibility of a study. Indeed, correspondence, or lack of correspondence, of from a positivist perspective, any claims to these themes with underlying theories’ (Bisman ‘truth’ derived from research which fails to 2010, p.11). A key process within critical realist employ such an approach are merely speculation research is retroduction , in which the researcher and therefore scientifically meaningless (Ryan seeks to establish the most probable explanation 2018). to explain the data acquired (Clegg 2001, O'Mahoney & Vincent 2014). The goal of positivist research is to discover ‘absolute knowledge about an objective reality’ Critical realism also argues that ‘there are (Scotland 2012, p.10) by finding ‘ regularly rational criteria for judging some theories as occurring events or patterns’ as the basis for better and more explanatory than others’ predictions (Bergin, Wells & Owen 2008, p.171). (Wikgren 2005, p.14)