EUROPEAN UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE Department of Politicai and Social Sciences ORIENTATIONS TOWARDS MOTHERHOOD AND CHILDLESSNESS, AND SOCIAL PRESSURES TO CONFORM Ann Condy Thesis submitted for assessment with a vie» of obtaining thè Degree of thè European University Institute Department of Politicai and Social Sciences Exara i^£_i ng__j ur Dr. Joan BUSFIELD (University of Essex) Prof. G0sta ESPING-ANDERSEN (EUI) (supervisori Prof. Janet FINCH (Lancaster University) (co-supervisor) Prof. Lee RAINWATER (Harvard University) Prof. Anneraette S0RENSEN (Harvard University) May 1991 Florence Condy, Ann (1991), Orientations towards motherhood and childlessness, and social pressures to conform European University Institute DOI: 10.2870/74909 Condy, Ann (1991), Orientations towards motherhood and childlessness, and social pressures to conform European University Institute DOI: 10.2870/74909 .jr j EUROPEAN UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE Department of Politicai and Social Sciences ORIENTATIONS TOWARDS MOTHERHOOD AND CHILDLESSNESS, AND SOCIAL PRESSURES TO CONFORM Ann Condy Thesis submitted for assessment with a view of obtaining thè Degree of thè European University Institute Department of Politicai and Social Sciences Exam.ì n_i ng__j ur^ Dr. Joan BUSFIELD (University of Essex) Prof. GjZSsta ESPING-ANDERSEN (EUI) (supervisori Prof. Janet FINCH (Lancaster University) (co-supervisor) Prof. Lee RAINWATER (Harvard University) Prof. Annemette S0RENSEN (Harvard University) May 1991 Florence LIB 301.42 CON Condy, Ann (1991), Orientations towards motherhood and childlessness, and social pressures to conform European University Institute DOI: 10.2870/74909 Condy, Ann (1991), Orientations towards motherhood and childlessness, and social pressures to conform European University Institute DOI: 10.2870/74909 I TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements ......... iv Introduction .......................................... 1 Culture and Structure ....... 11 1 Social Structural ................ ................. 17 Patterns of childbearing ......................... 18 Marriage and D i v o r c e ............................ 25 Education................................... 3 2 W o r k ............................................. 35 Income............................................. 50 Summary ......................................... 60 2 Motherhood, Pronatalism and Antinatalism .... 63 Definitions of pronatalism and antinatalisra . 63 Idealized motherhood in thè 19th century . 74 Post-Boer War population policy ................ 81 Post-World War II population policy .... 83 Pronatalism in abeyance? ......................... 92 Thatcherism and pronatalist rhetoric.... 101 3 Methodology. ........... 107 Choice of method .................................107 History of thè research ...... 107 a) theoretical consideraticns .... 109 b) practical considerations .... 115 The sample: women teachers................... 124 A note on social class............................ 128 The fieldwork................................ 131 a )cooperation with thè NUT. .131 b)the pilot s t u d y ................ 134 c)the main s u r v e y ....................... 135 d)the interviews: sample for interview ............... 138 pilot interviews .................... 139 thè main i n t e r v i e w s ............... 140 4 The Questionnaire ..................................... 143 Natalist attitudes................................ 143 Condy, Ann (1991), Orientations towards motherhood and childlessness, and social pressures to conform European University Institute DOI: 10.2870/74909 11 Variables in thè model. ....... 150 Conditional relationships ....... 161 Variables not in thè model. ...... 166 Conclusion. .................................. .... 169 5 The Interviews ...................................... .... 177 Pressures and s a n c t i o n s ......................... 180 Motherhood, mothering and mothers ..... 189 Work : a) c o m p a t i b i l i t y ..................... 1 9 3 b) housework and childcare..................... 196 c) c a r e e r ......................................197 Income.............................................. 202 Old a g e .......................................... 203 Risks ............ 204 Contraception ...................................... 205 Interview with G e r a l d i n e ......................... 209 Interview with Angela ........ 214 Interview with Elizabeth ......................... 220 Concluding comments ......................... 225 Conclusion.............................................. 229 Appendix A ................................................... 24 2 Appendix B ................................................... 253 Bibliography .............................................. 259 Condy, Ann (1991), Orientations towards motherhood and childlessness, and social pressures to conform European University Institute DOI: 10.2870/74909 Ili FIGURES AND TABLES Fiqures: 1.1 Live births outside marriage as a percentage of all b i r t h s .................................... 30 1.2 Female students as a percentage of all students: by selected full-time first degree courses, 1979/80 and 1987/88 .................................. 33 Tables; 1.1 Children per women: estimates and projections . 20 1.2 Overall changes in thè percentage of women on each scale, 1975 and 1985 ......................... 50 1.3 Average houriy earnings of working women by occupational group: women who gave information about gross earnings and hours of work . 5 5 4.1 Pronatalist and antinatalist statements . 144 4.2 Frequencies for natalist staterer.ts .... 146 4.3 Pearson correlation coefficients for natalist a t t i t u d e s ....................................... 148 4.4 Factor matrix for attitudinal items .... 149 4.5 Regression equations for natalist attitudes . 157 4.6 Fregression equation for natalist attitudes, subgroups: ’married'............................... 165 A. 1 Comparison with thè NUT and ILEA Surveys . 254 B.l The interview s a m p l e ............................... 258 Condy, Ann (1991), Orientations towards motherhood and childlessness, and social pressures to conform European University Institute DOI: 10.2870/74909 Condy, Ann (1991), Orientations towards motherhood and childlessness, and social pressures to conform European University Institute DOI: 10.2870/74909 IV Acknowledgements I imagine that this thesis is one among many that may never have been completed i£ it had not been for thè suppcrt and encouragement of a number of people. I would like to thank thè teachers and staff of thè London NUT who proviene both prac~icai and financial assistance in conducting thè questionnaire survey, in particular Gaelle Graham, who gave encouragement, support and thè invaluable use of her Amstrad while I was in London. Of thè many friends in Italy who have been immensely supportive in thè last few years, I would like to thank especially Chiara Angelini and Roberta Lanfredini, whose friendship and previous experience of working on a thesis, have encouraged me not to give up, and Maurizio Busatti, who has helped, encouraged and put up with me and mjf thesis in thè years we have lived together. I am dedicating this thesis to Elizabeth St Johnston (nee Thomas), my mother, and a very wise and independent woman. Ann Condy, Florence, Aprii 28 '91 Condy, Ann (1991), Orientations towards motherhood and childlessness, and social pressures to conform European University Institute DOI: 10.2870/74909 2 country with no particular worries about money’ (taken from K. Dunnell’s Family Formation Survey, 1979) stood at 1 per cent.1 Since then, a slight rise in thè thè levels of childlessness has led to a questioning of thè originai desire for parenthood, although such interest has been confirmed mainly to thè U.S. and Canada (out of 41 empirical studies which had been carried out by 1983, only two took place in Britain). There is stili disagreement as to whether non-parenthood constitutes a growing trend of any significance. Part of thè disagreement revolves around thè fact that different definitions of thè term voluntary childlessness are adopted (for instance, childlessness according to biological status or 'psychic* preference; married voluntary childless only or also single voluntary childlessness), which therefore affect thè number attributed to this minority of persons. However, one study has projected that as much as 30 per cent of thè young cohort of women in Sngland and Wales is likely to remain childless (Bloom and Pebley, 1982). Bane and Masnick (1980, p.40) suggest that 40 per cent of thè cohort of women born in thè 1950s may end up either childless or with one child. Kiernan (1989, p.27) reports that childlessness is expected to become more common. Most childlessness is associated, at least in thè United States and Canada, with higher socio-econcmic groups (Veever, 1983). 1. Of course, this does not teli us what single women's and cohabiting women’s ideal family size is. Condy, Ann (1991), Orientations towards motherhood and childlessness, and social pressures to conform European University Institute DOI: 10.2870/74909 3 On thè other hand, many writers speak of continuing pressures on women to have children. Some writers have described United States and Canadian societies as pronatalist, in thè sense that thè culture dictates that motherhood is mandatcry (Russo, 1976; Veevers, 1979). Rindfuss (1988) speaks of a 'normative parental imperative' and claims that thè transition to parenthood rather than marriage can be regarded as thè true transition to adulthood. Recent historical evidence,