A History of Ancient Persia Blackwell History of the Ancient World This series provides a new narrative history of the ancient world, from the beginnings of civilization in the ancient Near East and Egypt to the fall of Constantinople. Written by experts in their fields, the books in the series offer authoritative accessible surveys for students and general readers alike. Published A History of Babylon, 2200 BC–AD 75 Paul‐Alain Beaulieu A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC, third edition Marc Van De Mieroop A History of Ancient Egypt Marc Van De Mieroop A History of the Archaic Greek World, 1200–479 BCE, second edition Jonathan M. Hall A History of the Classical Greek World, 478–323 BC, second edition P. J. Rhodes A History of the Hellenistic World, 323–30 BC R. Malcolm Errington A History of the Later Roman Empire, AD 284–641, second edition Stephen Mitchell A History of Byzantium, second edition Timothy E. Gregory A History of Greece, 1300 to 30 BC Victor Parker A History of Ancient Persia The Achaemenid Empire Maria Brosius This edition first published 2021 © 2021 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions. The right of Maria Brosius to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with law. Registered Office John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA Editorial Office 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com. 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Title: A history of ancient Persia : the Achaemenid empire / Maria Brosius. Other titles: Achaemenid empire Description: Hoboken, New Jersey : Wiley‐Blackwell, 2021. | Series: Blackwell History of the Ancient World | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2020023647 (print) | LCCN 2020023648 (ebook) | ISBN 9781444350920 (paperback) | ISBN 9781119702542 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119702535 (epub) Subjects: LCSH: Achaemenid dynasty, 559 B.C.‐330 B.C. | Iran–History–To 640. | Iran–Civilization–To 640. Classification: LCC DS281 .B76 2021 (print) | LCC DS281 (ebook) | DDC 935/.05–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020023647 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020023648 Cover Design: Wiley Cover Image: © Maria Brosius Set in 10.5/12.5pt Plantin by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Contents List of Illustrations ix List of Maps xv List of Special Topics xvii List of Sources in Translation xix List of Boxed Texts xxi List of Abbreviations xxiii The Achaemenid Dynasty xxvii Preface xxix Acknowledgements xxxi Author’s Note xxxiii 1 Introduction 1 2 The Arrival of the Persians on the Iranian Plateau 5 2.1 The Persians 5 2.1.1 Parsua and Parsumash 6 2.1.2 Kurash of Parsumash 8 2.2 The Indigenous Population of the Iranian Plateau: The Elamites 8 2.3 The Neighbours in the North: The Medes 10 2.3.1 Media in Herodotus 11 2.3.2 Near Eastern Sources on the Medes 11 3 The Establishment of Empire: Cyrus the Great 17 3.1 Cyrus II and Media 17 3.1.1 A Folktale or a Tool for Legitimacy? 18 3.2 The Conquest of the Lydian Kingdom 19 3.3 Cyrus and the Ionian Greeks 20 vi CONTENTS 3.4 The First Royal City of the Persians: Pasargadae 20 3.5 The Conquest of Babylon 24 3.5.1 A Peaceful Conquest? 27 3.5.2 Political Astuteness 28 3.6 The Scythian Campaign 30 3.7 Cyrus II, Conqueror and Empire‐Builder 30 4 A Worthy Successor: Cambyses II 33 4.1 The Succession of Cambyses II 33 4.2 The Power of Propaganda 36 4.2.1 The Demotic Papyrus 39 4.3 Cambyses’s Depiction in Herodotus 39 4.4 The Apis Bull 41 4.4.1 The Apis Bull and the Death of Cambyses 43 4.4.2 The Killing of His Sister‐Wife 43 4.4.3 Fratricide 44 5 From Bardiya to Darius I 47 5.1 The Succession of Darius I 47 5.1.1 Herodotus’s Version of Events 47 5.1.2 Darius’s Version: The Inscription of Bisitun 48 5.2 The Death of Bardiya 49 5.2.1 Herodotus and the Bisitun Inscription: A Comparison 60 5.2.2 A Murder Mystery 61 5.2.3 Darius the Achaemenid 61 5.2.4 Teispes 63 5.2.5 The Royal Line of Kings 63 5.2.6 Dynastic Marriages 64 5.3 The Consolidation of Empire 64 5.3.1 Royal Cities 67 5.3.1.1 Pasargadae 67 5.3.1.2 Susa 67 5.3.2 Parsa – City of the Persians 68 5.4 Foreign Policy 73 5.4.1 The Scythian Campaign 75 5.4.2 The Athenian‐Persian Alliance of 508/7 76 5.4.3 The Ionian Revolt 77 5.4.4 The Sequence of Events 78 5.4.5 Problems in the Historical Account 80 5.4.6 The Punitive Campaign of 490 81 6 The Face of Empire 85 6.1 Achaemenid Kingship 85 6.1.1 The Power of Royal Imagery 87 6.2 Royal Ideology 90 6.3 Persian Religion 93 6.3.1 Funerary Customs 95 CONTENTS vii 6.4 Persepolis: The Microcosm of Empire 98 6.4.1 The Royal Court 99 6.4.2 Gift‐Giving 100 6.4.3 Rhyta 101 6.4.4 The Women of the Court 102 6.4.5 The King’s Friends and Benefactors 105 6.4.6 Courtiers 105 6.4.7 Refugees and Foreigners 106 7 The Organisation of Power 113 7.1 The Satraps 113 7.1.1 The Satrapies 114 7.1.2 The Great Satrapy of Bactria 115 7.1.3 The Status of the Caucasus Region and Thrace 116 7.2 Administering the Empire 122 7.2.1 Royal Correspondence 122 7.2.2 Taxes and Tribute 125 7.2.3 The Administration of Persepolis 126 7.2.4 Royal Roads 127 8 Taking up the Baton: Diplomacy and Foreign Policy from Xerxes I to Artaxerxes II 137 8.1 The Reign of Xerxes 137 8.1.1 Xerxes’s Succession 137 8.1.2 Quashing Rebellions in Egypt and Babylonia 139 8.2 The War in Greece 139 8.2.1 The State of Play in Greece 140 8.2.2 The Persian Army on the March 140 8.2.3 Thermopylae and Artemisium 140 8.2.4 The Fall of Athens and the Battle of Salamis 141 8.2.5 Attempts at Diplomacy 141 8.2.6 The Battle of Plataea 142 8.2.7 Xerxes in Asia Minor 142 8.2.8 The Story of Xerxes and the Wife of Masistes 143 8.2.9 … And a Story Retold 143 8.2.10 The Beginning of the Myth 148 8.2.11 Medising 149 8.2.12 Perserie 149 8.2.13 After the War 150 8.3 Artaxerxes I 152 8.3.1 The Death of Xerxes I and the Succession of Artaxerxes I 152 8.3.2 Revolts in Bactria and Egypt 153 8.3.3 Rebellion in Egypt 464–454 153 8.3.4 The Revolt of Megabyxus 154 8.3.5 The Peace of Callias 157 8.3.6 Judaea Under Artaxerxes I 158 8.3.7 Continuity in Persepolis 158 viii CONTENTS 8.4 Succession Trouble in 424 158 8.4.1 Rebellions in the Empire 161 8.4.2 The Royal Building Programme Continued 161 8.4.3 Persia Re‐enters Greek Politics 161 8.4.4 The Bilateral Treaty of 411 163 8.5 Artaxerxes II 166 8.5.1 The War of the Brothers 166 8.5.2 Persian Affairs in Asia Minor 168 8.5.3 Evagoras of Salamis 172 8.5.4 Revolt in Egypt 404/400–343/2 174 8.6 The Winds of Change 175 8.6.1 City‐Rulers and Local Dynasts of the Western Empire 175 8.6.2 The Hecatomnids 176 8.6.3 Perikle of Limyra 180 8.6.4 The Political Level 181 8.6.4.1 The kings of Sidon 181 8.6.5 Stele of the King of Byblos/Gubal 183 8.6.6 Rebellions in Western Asia Minor 366–359/8 187 8.6.7 Datames 187 8.6.8 Ariobarzanes 188 8.6.9 Orontes 189 8.6.10 The Death of Artaxerxes II 189 9 A Whole New Ballgame: The Reign of Artaxerxes III and Artaxerxes IV 199 9.1 The Succession of Artaxerxes III 199 9.2 Egypt 200 9.3 Athenian–Persian Relations 349–342 200 9.4 The Death of Artaxerxes III and the Reign of Artaxerxes IV 204 10 A Good King in the End: Darius III 207 10.1 The Succession of Darius III 207 10.1.1 Battling Negative Propaganda 207 10.2 External Threat 209 10.2.1 The Macedonian Invasion 209 10.2.2 Granicus 209 10.2.3 Issus 210 10.2.4 Gaugamela 211 10.2.5 The Royal Cities 212 10.2.6 The Death of Darius III 216 10.3 In the Footsteps of the Persian Kings? 217 11 Epilogue 221 Bibliography 225 Index 233 List of Illustrations 2.1 Elamite relief with inscriptions of Hanni at Shekaft‐e Salman II.