THE SOCIAL BRAIN IN HUMAN AND RELIGIOUS EVOLUTION: ELUCIDATING THE ROLE OF THEORY OF MIND IN (NON)RELIGIOUS BELIEF By Thomas J. Coleman III Ralph W. Hood Jr. Catherine Caldwell-Harris Professor of Psychology Associate Professor of Psychology (Chair) (Committee Member) Jill T. Shelton Jenny M. Holcombe Assistant Professor of Psychology Assistant Professor of Nursing (Committee Member) (Committee Member) i THE SOCIAL BRAIN IN HUMAN AND RELIGIOUS EVOLUTION: ELUCIDATING THE ROLE OF THEORY OF MIND IN (NON)RELIGIOUS BELIEF By Thomas J. Coleman III A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Degree of Master of Science: Psychology The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga Chattanooga, Tennessee August 2016 ii Copyright © 2016 By Thomas Joseph Coleman III All Rights Reserved iii ABSTRACT Contemporary theorists of religion have argued that religious beliefs are “natural” because they arise from normally functioning social cognitive capacities, especially Theory of Mind (ToM). Hence, attempts to explain atheism have relied heavily on the assumption that nonbelievers may have a malfunctioning ToM and other traits associated with the autism spectrum continuum (ASC). However, few studies currently address this topic and the evidence either way remains ambiguous. The current research narrows this empirical gap, addressing these claims with a two-fold approach. First, a near comprehensive review of ToM is provided. Second, this study is exploratory, employing a unique methodology and previously untapped empirical measures to test for differences in ToM components and ASC traits between atheists (N = 2423) and theists (N = 103). Keywords: theory of mind; cognitive science of religion; evolutionary psychology; atheism; religion iv DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to three key individuals in my life. The order of their mention reflects only my initial acquaintance with their dear company—many things in life are priceless. To Mark Milam Schmissrauter Jr., I am forever in debt to your companionship and our many youthful adventures. In the ten years since your passing I’ve missed you a lot. To my daughter, Heather Destiny Marie Coleman, the budding zoologist, I look forward to reading your master’s thesis (and doctoral dissertation) in only a few too-short years from now—but I’ll always help you follow any dream you have. To my fiancé, Carmencita Eugenia Guevara Guardado, tú eres mi ángel! v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am forever in debt to my thesis committee, Drs. Ralph W. Hood Jr., Jill T. Shelton, Jenny M. Holcombe, and Catherine Caldwell-Harris, thank you all for countless hours of guidance and wisdom, and for your encouragement and enthusiasm for the ideas in this manuscript. To my advisors, friends, and mentors, Ralph W. Hood Jr. (again) and Christopher F. Silver, the years spent under your tutelage have been my utmost privilege, thanks for paying attention to the white crows in life. Standing on the shoulders of giants, I am grateful for correspondence with the following individuals and for their positive influence on my thinking (in alphabetical order): Leonardo Ambasciano, Robert B. Arrowood, Matthew Bashor, Lee Bridenstine, Tiffini Coleman, Christopher R. Cotter, Matthew Durham, Julie Exline and the “Expletives” lab, Luke Galen, Carmencita Eugenia Guevara Guardado, Stewart Guthrie, Sara Hall, Brandon Jones, Jonathan Jong, Barbara Keller, Justin E. Lane, Michael E. Nielsen, Bob McCauley, David G. Robertson, Kenan Sevinç, John R. Shook, Heinz Streib, Sally B. Swanson, Ann Taves, Ingela Visuri, and Ms. Zielke. To my parents and family, I owe you everything. Moreover, I am thankful for Jonathan Jong and Miguel Farias, my new advisors at Coventry University in the United Kingdom, where I will pursue my psychology PhD on the evolution of belief. And finally, a big thanks to all the people in the world who help keep dreams alive. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... iv DEDICATION .....................................................................................................................v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................. vi LIST OF TABLES ...............................................................................................................x LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... xi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................... xii LIST OF SYMBOLS ....................................................................................................... xiii CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................1 II. ORIGINS OF THEORY OF MIND IN HUMAN EVOLUTION ...................3 Origins of Causal Cognition ............................................................................3 Oldowan and Acheulean Industries: Implications for Joint Intentionality ......7 III. THEORY OF MIND MECHANISMS ......................................................... 12 Leslie’s Theory of Agency ............................................................................12 Theory of Body Mechanism ......................................................................14 Theory of Mind Mechanism ......................................................................15 Selection Processor ....................................................................................16 Meta-representations ..................................................................................17 Baron-Cohen’s Mindreading System.............................................................19 Intentionality Detector ...............................................................................20 Eye Detection Device ................................................................................21 Shared Attention Mechanism .....................................................................23 Theory of Mind Mechanism ......................................................................23 Leslie and Baron-Cohen Compared ...............................................................24 Variation in “Modules” and the Function of “Executive Functioning”........ 24 vii IV. MEASURING THEORY OF MIND AND ASSOCIATED CONSTRUCTS..............................................................................31 Measuring the Mental ....................................................................................31 Eye Gaze ....................................................................................................35 Broader Autism Phenotype ........................................................................... 39 V. THEORY OF MIND: CONVERGENCE AND VARIATION .....................42 Cross-Cultural Convergence and Variation in Theory of Mind ....................42 Environmental Influences on the Development of Theory of Mind ..............46 Day-to-Day Variations in Mindreading .........................................................50 Affiliation, Empathy, and Coordination ....................................................51 Clinical Variations in Theory of Mind ..........................................................51 The Social Brain Continuum and Social “Disorders” ...................................54 Psychotic-Spectrum .......................................................................................55 Autism-Spectrum ...........................................................................................56 Systemizing ....................................................................................................60 Empathizing ...................................................................................................61 Systemizing and Empathizing .......................................................................61 VI. FOLK PSYCHOLOGY, THEORY OF MIND, AND VARIATION ...........63 Cultural Variations in Folk Psychology ........................................................63 Folk Psychology and Language .....................................................................66 Folk Psychology and Mind ............................................................................67 VII. THEORY OF MIND AND COGNITIVE SCIENCE OF RELIGION .........71 The Meta-Representational Mind and Supernatural Belief ...........................76 Meta-representational Research .................................................................77 Existential Theory of Mind ............................................................................78 Teleology .......................................................................................................80 Dualism ..........................................................................................................81 Mentalizing ....................................................................................................83 High Functioning Autism, Theory of Mind, and Religious Belief ............85 VIII. DIVERSITY OF NONBELIEF .....................................................................87 Atheism and Theory of Mind.........................................................................89 IX. METHODS ....................................................................................................91