CONTENTS 6. Electrolysis 280—307 7. Metallurgy 308—340 1. Periodic Table, Periodic Properties 1—50 A. Metals and Non-metals 314—318 and Variations of Properties B. Extraction of Metals 318—325 2. Chemical Bonding 51—93 C. Aluminium 325—331 3. Acids, Bases and Salts 94—147 D. Alloys 331—333 A. Acids and Bases 109—116 Miscellaneous Exercise 334—340 B. Salts and their Preparations 116—127 8. Study of Compounds 341—362 C. Properties of Salts 128—133 A. Hydrogen Chloride Miscellaneous Exercise 133—143 9. Study of Compounds 363—388 Additional Questions 143—147 B. Ammonia 4. Analytical Chemistry : 148—157 10. Study of Compounds 389—404 Uses of Ammonium Hydroxide and C. Nitric Acid Sodium Hydroxide 11. Study of Compounds D. Sulphuric Acid 405—424 5. Mole concept and Stoichiometry 158—279 12. Organic Chemistry 425—499 A. Gay Lussac’s Law and Avogadro’s Law 160—170 A. Organic Compounds 434—455 B. Relative Atomic Mass, Relative 170—184 B. Hydrocarbons : Alkanes 456—464 Molecular Mass and Mole Concept C. Hydrocarbons : Alkenes 464—472 C. Percentage Composition, Empirical 185—197 D. Hydrocarbons : Alkynes 472—479 and Molecular Formulae E. Alcohols 479—486 D. Calculations Based on Chemical Equations 197—206 F. Carboxylic Acids 486—489 Miscellaneous Exercises 206—249 Miscellaneous Exercise 490—501 Some Extra Questions 250—253 13. Practical Work 502—517 Practice Problems 254—279 Model Test Paper – 1 (Solved) 518—530 Model Test Paper – 2 (Solved) 531—542 Model Test Paper – 3 (Solved) 543—553 Model Test Paper – 4 (Solved) 502—564 Model Test Paper – 5 (Solved) 502—578 Revision Test Paper Model Test Paper – 1 (UnSolved) 579—583 Model Test Paper – 2 (UnSolved) 583—588 Model Test Paper – 3 (UnSolved) 588—594 Model Test Paper – 4 (UnSolved) 595—601 * PERIOD is determined by the NUMBER OF SHELLS. CHAPTER 1 * GROUP is determined by the NUMBER OF ELECTRONS in the PERIODIC TABLE, AND VALENCE shell. * In the Mendeleev’s periodic table there were eight groups. There VARIATIONS OF PROPERTIES was no group of noble gases. Later on when 18th group or group of noble gases was added in the long form periodic table, it did not * NEED FOR CLASSIFICATION : There are 118 elements known disturb the arrangement of elements. from 1H to ...... 115Mc, 116Lv, 117Ts and Un – Un octium 118Og * In the classification of then known elements, Mendeleev was guided oganesson and their compounds very large in number, to study by two factors (i) increasing atomic masses (ii) grouping their properties separately is difficult and to make their study easier, together of elements having similar properties. 118 elements have been divided into a few groups such that elements * The real significance of MODERN PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION in the same group have similar properties. i.e. study of a large based on ATOMIC NUMBERS is that it related periodicity in the number of elements is reduced to the study of a few groups of properties of elements to the periodicity in their electronic elements. configuration. And this is an IDEAL arrangement. * At the time of Mendeleev only 63 elements were known and he was Or able to place all the 63 elements in VERTICAL columns (groups) * The significance of ATOMIC NUMBER in the classification of and HORIZONTAL rows (periods). elements is THAT BEING EQUAL TO NUMBER OF ELECTRONS * Mendeleev left some GAPS in his periodic table for elements not in ATOM, it helps in arranging the elements according to their known at that time. electronic configuration, which is the present bases for the Later on these gaps were filled by elements discovered. These classification of elements is their electronic configuration. elements were scandium Sc, gallium Ga and germanium Ge. * The elements having same number of valence electrons SHOW * PERIODIC TABLE ‘is a chart of elements prepared in such a way SIMILAR PROPERTIES, therefore, all the elements in a particular that the elements having similar properties occur in the same vertical group of periodic table have similar properties. column or group.’ * In 1913, Moseley showed that ATOMIC NUMBER of an element is * TABULAR ARRANGEMENT of elements in groups and PERIODS MORE FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTY than ATOMIC MASS ‘as high lighting the regular trends in properties of elements is called atomic number increases regularly by 1 from element to element PERIODIC TABLE. but atomic mass does not. * Mendeleev – had arranged the elements in the periodic table on the * Elements of group I [Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr] are known as ALKALI bases of INCREASING ATOMIC WEIGHT and MODERN periodic metals as they form strong alkalis with water. table is based on INCREASING ATOMIC NUMBER. * Elements of group 2 [Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra] are ALKALINE EARTH * MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC LAW : “The physical and chemical METALS as the form weak alkalis and all are metals. properties of elements are periodic function of their atomic masses.” * Metal oxides are BASIC. Element (like Li, Na, K) form basic oxides. * MODERN PERIODIC LAW “Properties of elements are PERIODIC Elements are strong REDUCING AGENTS. FUNCTION of their ATOMIC NUMBER.” i.e. If elements are * Elements of group 17 [F, Cl, Br, I, At] called HALLOGENS form arranged in increasing order of their atomic number, their properties ACIDIC OXIDES. They are coloured non-metals, form negative repeat after regular interval.” ions carrying a single charge (Cl–), very reactive found in combined * Henry Moseley put forward the MODERN PERIODIC TABLE. state. * Niels Bohar gave EXTENDED FORM OF THE TABLE which is * Elements are strong – OXIDISING AGENTS. also called long form of the modern periodic table. 1 Arundeep’s Chemistry 10th Arundeep’s Chemistry 10th 2 * In a group there is no change in the nature of oxides of elements. NaCl and HCl * GROUPS 3 to 12 are called TRANSITION elements and have metals. Na2O and H2O They have their two outermost shells incomplete. Na2S and H2S * The elements of groups 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 are known as Hydrogen also resembles. MAIN GROUP ELEMENTS or REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS Halogens in some of the properties i.e. they exist in diatomic or NORMAL ELEMENTS. molecules H2, Cl2, F2, Br2. Both H2 and halogens combine with * Group 13 – BORON family metals and also with non-metals to form covalent compounds. But Group 14 – CARBON family (being first element of group) in long form of periodic table Hydrogen is placed at the head of Group 15 – NITROGEN family alkali metals in 1st period as first element as its atom is very small Group 16 – OXYGEN family in size. also called CHALCOGENS meaning ore forming. * There are 7 periods. Except first period where first element is * GROUP 18 or Zero group or Inert gases or noble gases [He, Ne, hydrogen and last element is noble gas (He), each period starts Ar, Kr, Ze, Rn] all are inert and gases and have stable electronic with alkali metal and ends with noble gas. configuration. He has 2 electrons in outermost K-shell called increase decrease DUPLET and all others 8 electrons in outermost orbit and called * The TRENDS which across a period in octet. GROUPS and vice-versa. * METALLOIDS [B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, Po] in the periodic table * I.P, E.A, Electronegativity, Non-metallic character, M.P and B.P, separate METALS on left side from NON-METALS on right side increase and are placed diagonally. number of valence electrons reactivity across a period * Bromine (Br) is LIQUID and Iodine (I) is SOLID at room from left to right. temperature. Nuclear charge INCREASES and ATOMIC RADII increases. * PERIODICITY : “The properties that reappear at regular intervals, * Atomic size, Metallic character and basic nature increases down a of which there is gradual variation (i.e. increase or decrease) at group. regular intervals, are called periodic properties and the phenomenon Atomic Radii increases and Nuclear charge though increases is is called PERIODICITY of elements” and it causes same number DOMINATED by increase in number of shells or increase in Atomic of electrons in valence shell. Radii. * PERIODIC PROPERTIES are : * A CATION (formed by loss of electron/s e.g. Na + e– Na+) is (i) Atomic size smaller than the parent neutral atom since the remaining electrons (ii) Metallic character in the cation are strongly attracted by the nucleus, thus decreasing the size of cation. (iii) Non-metallic character * In period-2 [Li] has the largest atomic radius and (F) the smallest. (iv) Ionisation potential * As Electronegativity increases from left to right across a period, (v) Electron affinity Halogens have high electronegativity and it decreases from top to (vi) Electronegativity. bottom in a group. Hence fluorine (F) has the highest * POSITION OF HYDROGEN : is controversial. In Mendeleev’s electronegativity. periodic table (H) has been placed in group I along with alkali metals * Greater the tendency to lose electron/s, the greater is the as Hydrogen and alkali-metals have 1 valence electron each. Both REACTIVITY OF THE METAL. In case of non-metals, the greater alkali metals and Hydrogen combine with Cl2, O2, sulphur to form the tendency to gain electrons the greater is the reactivity of the compounds having similar formula same. 3 Arundeep’s Chemistry 10th Arundeep’s Chemistry 10th 4 * Neon (Ne) has electron affinity zero as noble gases with stable 5. The elements occupying the left and right wing of vertical column electronic configuration find it difficult to accept electrons. in the long form of the periodic table are called .............. elements. * Inert gases have max. number of electrons in their outermost orbit [normal representative/transition] and electronic repulsions are max. Hence bigger size. 6. The vertical columns in the long form of the periodic table are * ANION [formed by the gain of electron/s e.g.