HAZARDOUS WEATHER PHENOMENA Thunderstorms Bureau of Meteorology › Weather Services › Aviation A thunderstorm is a cumulonimbus (CB) cloud in which electrical discharge can be seen as lightning and heard as thunder. It may also have associated wind gusts, precipitation or tornadoes. A thunderstorm is Thunderstorm Development potentially the most violent and destructive A thunderstorm is essentially a cloud that produces lightning. The lightning is a meteorological gigantic spark created when an enormous imbalance of positive and negative charge occurs. It greatly heats the surrounding air to many thousands of degrees, causing the phenomenon confronting air to expand violently, resulting in the crashing noise known as thunder. general aviation For a thunderstorm to form, moist air must be able to rapidly rise through the pilots. Regardless atmosphere. Three main ingredients are necessary for this to occur: of size or intensity, any thunderstorm is 1. An unstable atmosphere (evidenced by a strong vertical lapse rate, i.e. temperature falls rapidly with height) which, when associated with high surface temperatures, hazardous to aviation. provides a favourable environment for the strong vertical atmospheric motions that produce thunderstorms. 2. A lifting mechanism (to initiate the vertical motion) such as low level convergence of airstreams, a frontal system, orographic uplift or local differences in heating. 3. Sufficient moisture (water vapour) in the low levels of the atmosphere. As air rises it cools, causing the invisible water vapour to condense into visible water droplets that form the cloud. The condensation process releases latent heat into the atmosphere, making the rising air more buoyant, fuelling further cloud growth. Types of Thunderstorms The type and severity of any thunderstorm will depend largely on the instability (buoyancy) of the rising air within the thunderstorm and the structure of the wind within the atmosphere. Wind generally tends to increase in speed and change direction with increasing altitude. This change in wind direction and/or speed with height is known as vertical wind shear. The most severe thunderstorms occur in an environment with strong instability and strong wind shear. The dynamical building block of a thunderstorm is the convective cell, which is a compact region of strong vertical motion. Research has shown that convective cells, as observed visibly and on radar, often evolve in identifiable patterns. The most commonly observed storm types are classified as theordinary cell, the multicell and the supercell. The Ordinary Cell Thunderstorm This is the most basic and common thunderstorm type, forming in an environment of weak vertical wind shear. It is a relatively weak weather system which initially consists of a single updraft which rises rapidly through the troposphere producing large amounts of water droplets and ice particles. When the water and ice become too heavy for the updraft to support, they begin to fall, creating a downdraft that quickly replaces the updraft. As the downdraft mixes with drier air in the lower troposphere, strong evaporative cooling may occur, accelerating the downdraft (because of negative buoyancy) which spreads out horizontally on reaching the surface. The life cycle of an ordinary thunderstorm cell may be divided into three stages determined by the magnitude and direction of the predominating vertical motions. These stages are: • the developing (or cumulus) stage, which is characterised by an updraft throughout the cell. • the mature (or cumulonimbus) stage, which is characterised by both updraft and downdraft, at least in the lower half of the cell. This is the stage of maximum lightning activity. • the dissipating stage which is characterised by downdrafts throughout the cell. Developing Mature Dissipating The ordinary cell is normally 5–10 km in horizontal extent and usually short-lived (15- 30 minutes) in its mature stage as the downdraft eventually completely replaces the updraft, depriving the storm of its source of warm, moist air. It has been observed that the ordinary thunderstorm cell can sometimes produce severe weather (high winds, hail, weak tornadoes) for a short time if the updraft or downdraft is strong enough. The Multicell Thunderstorm Most thunderstorms are multicellular, i.e. a cluster of short-lived ordinary cells moving as a single unit with each cell in a different stage of the thunderstorm life cycle. The cold outflows from each combine to form a large gust front which provides a lifting mechanism for new updraft development, which can then lead to new cells forming. The degree of organisation of this thunderstorm type gives it a relatively long life and a greater chance of producing severe weather over a broad area. They tend to form in environments with moderate vertical windshear. They are more potent than single cell thunderstorms but considerably less so than supercells. In terms of organisation, two types of multicellular thunderstorms are the squall line and the meso-scale convective complex. A squall line is a multicell thunderstorm where the cells are arranged in a long line. The adjacent cells are so close together that they form a continuous line of thunderstorms accompanied by a continuous, and often strong, surface gust front at the line’s leading edge, hence the name squall line. They develop along a linear lifting mechanism such as a cold front or a pre-frontal trough and also within the inter-tropical convergence zone. Squall lines can be particularly dangerous to aircraft in flight since they can present a wall of severe weather which is too wide, high and long to negotiate. Cloud bases Squall line thunderstorms. can change rapidly and are often very low. Flying beneath the cloud is an extremely hazardous procedure due to the high probability of encountering strong downdrafts, hail, rain, poor visibility, severe turbulence and low cloud. A meso-scale convective complex is a nearly circular cluster of many interacting thunderstorm cells at various stages of development, covering an area that can exceed 500 kilometres in diameter. They have the potential to produce severe weather in the form of moderate-sized hail, weak tornadoes and heavy rainfall. The Supercell Thunderstorm As a general rule, the greater the altitude of the top of the thunderstorm, the more likely it is that the system will produce severe weather. The supercell, characterised by Meso-scale convective complex over a single rotating updraft reaching great vertical extent, is relatively rare but is the most the Gulf of Carpentaria. destructive and long-lasting of all thunderstorms. It is a well-organised cell that forms in an environment of strong vertical wind shear, strong instability and large moisture supply. The essential factor in its development is the presence of the strong vertical wind shear which favours a long-lasting vigorous updraft by organising the wind flows such that the precipitation falls alongside, not into, the updraft; and a strong inflow of moist boundary-layer air feeding into the storm is maintained. A supercell thunderstorms can thus persist for several hours (up to seven hours has been observed) in its mature stage. The rotating updraft is thought to be dependent upon the presence of wind speed shear Supercell thunderstorm. in the mid levels which can cause a rolling about the horizontal axis of this mid-level air which, if lifted into the vertical by convection, can result in the updraft rotating. Any low-level shear that may exist will contribute to the rotation if it is lifted into the updraft through the storm’s inflow. This rotating updraft can lead to the formation of tornadoes. The dividing line between the cold downdraft and the warm updraft at the surface is called a gust front. In some cases the gust front can be identified at a distance from the supercell by the presence of a detached (horizontal, tube-shaped) roll cloud that is situated directly behind the gust front. These clouds are seldom accompanied by severe weather. However, damaging winds may occur under a shelf cloud (also Roll cloud. known as arcus cloud) which can form on the edge of the gust front. It is an elongated wedge-shaped cloud attached to the leading edge of the supercell where the cold downdraft forces warm moist air upwards. A rotating wall cloud may form in the rain-free updraft area towards the rear of the thunderstorm. It occurs in the area of strongest updraft which entrains moist cool air from the nearby downdraft, allowing condensation at altitudes lower than that of the ambient cloud base. Most tornadoes form within wall clouds. Shelf cloud. Aviation-related Hazards Associated with Thunderstorms All thunderstorms have the potential to be hazardous to aviation no matter what their size or intensity. These hazards include: • severe wind shear and turbulence • tornadoes • downbursts • heavy rain • hail • poor visibility • icing • air pressure changes Wall cloud. • lightning Initial impact Downbursts The outflow from a storm’s downdraft will occasionally produce winds of destructive force. When precipitation falls into drier air inside or below a thunderstorm, it immediately begins evaporating. This evaporation cools the surrounding air, increasing its density, causing it to accelerate downwards. A downburst is a concentrated downdraft, typically lasting five to fifteen minutes, and is of unusually high speed such that it can cause damage on, or near, the ground. The term microburst is used to describe a downburst which causes damage over an area with horizontal dimensions of less than four kilometres. Downburst winds originate from the cloud base and diverge when they make contact Outspread stage with the ground. The rapid change in wind speed and direction associated with downbursts poses a threat to aircraft during take-off and landing phases, during which an aircraft will first encounter a strong headwind, then a downdraft which is the vertically descending section of the downburst, and finally a region of strong tailwind. If a pilot was to over-compensate for the lift experienced in the headwind, a dangerous drop in altitude may occur when the lift disappears in the downdraft and tailwind regions.