War and Alliances The Transformative Roles of External Actors in the Somali Conflict By Chukwudi Solomon Osondu (Student Number: 206526356) Being a Thesis Submitted to the University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D) in Conflict Transformation and Peace Studies Supervisor: Professor Ufo I. Okeke-Uzodike March 2015 “As the candidate’s Supervisor, I agree/do not agree to the submission of this thesis.” ______________________________ Professor Ufo I. Okeke-Uzodike Declaration I hereby declare that the thesis is a product of my own research work. All the materials or data used in this work are duly acknowledged by way of references and bibliography. _________________ Osondu, Chukwudi S. i Certification It is hereby certified that this thesis entitled “War and Alliances: The Transformative Role of External Actors in Somali Conflict” is an original research carried out by Chukwudi Solomon Osondu (Student Registration Number 206526356). This research was carried out under my supervision and guidance and is hereby accepted and recommended for Approval for the Award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Conflict Transformation and Peace Studies by the University of KwaZulu-Natal. _________________________ Professor Ufo I. Okeke-Uzodike Supervisor Date: _____________________ ii Dedication This work is dedicated to my lovely family. My beloved wife and best friend, Adachudi and our wonderful children, Chy, Chukwudi Jnr and Muna who suffered lots of deprivations from my periodically very long absences during the course of this work. Their spiritual strength, consistent calls and unfailing love kept me going even when there was much on the way to discourage me from continuing the journey. iii Acknowledgement God takes the first of my appreciations. It was possible to start this work and complete because of His faithfulness. His provisions and protection, strength and healing hands upheld me in the most trying times of this programme. When I remember that many start the race and do not complete it, I simply know I am here because God ferried me this far. Let me sincerely appreciate my supervisor, Professor Ufo I. Okeke-Uzodike, whose knowledge and expertise in guiding students through difficult research was brought to bear on this work. I acknowledge his invaluable advice, very productive scholarly appraisals and guidance throughout the duration of this work. I benefited immensely working under your supervision. I also appreciate those times he facilitated my fieldtrips. My God will bless you. I wish to appreciate the immeasurable assistance from Professor Stephen Mutula. He readily connected me to the University of Nairobi Librarian. He also facilitated my accommodation and transportation. He made a lot of things easier for me while on the field trip in Kenya. The Omoge family of Buruburu, Nairobi provided me with shelter, food and transport for the duration of my stay in Kenya. It was a great experience in a great home. I appreciate the assistance of Professor Makumi Mwangiru, the Director, Institute of Diplomacy and International Studies, University of Nairobi, for allowing me the use of the Institute’s facility for my work while in Kenya. I also say a big thank you to Mrs. Jacinta Were the then Deputy University Librarian (T), University of Nairobi, Kenya , for granting me an unfettered access to the University library materials and other forms of assistance. James Murunga was my Research assistant in Kenya. He took me round and helped me in locating appointment venues. His mastery of Nairobi city and suburbs made it possible for me to accomplish a lot. His commitment to seeing me achieve success made him to take some risks in some locations. I am really very grateful. I wish to acknowledge in a special way, Most Rev. Christian O. Efobi JP, the Archbishop of Province of the Niger and the Bishop of Diocese of Aguata and the wife, Dame Jane N. Efobi, for their enduring support throughout the course of this programme. Their prayers and benevolence have been without measure. My special appreciation also goes to Professor Godwin Onu, the Rector, Federal Polytechnic, Oko, for his immense support. I owe a lot of gratitude to Chief Dr. Alex Ekwueme, GCON, the Former Vice-President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. He has been a consistent benefactor. I will not forget quickly that this PhD is a follow-up to my Masters study for which he hugely supported. Aka-Ide Beatrice Ekwueme and Ifeoma (Ochiliozua) Ekwueme are also appreciated. iv I appreciate the support of my Chaplain Assistant who effectively manages the Chapel during my numerous absences. The prayers for my success by the entire congregation are equally immeasurable. I will remain ever grateful to the care and love of Dr. Uju, Udu, Mma and Nyelum Okeke- Uzodike. You made me feel very much at home whenever I am in school. I also thank Dr. Paul Okeke and family, Dr. Ngene, and Dr. Apelehin. Obinna Okafor and the wife, Dr. Nneka Okafor and household have been most helpful. My friend Kingsley Efogwo and wife accommodate me kind-heartedly whenever I am in Johannesburg. Thank you. My gratitude also goes to Chinedu Ekwealor, Canon Wisdom Otaluka and all others I have not been able to mention. I cannot forget my son and friend, Elvis Chiaghanam, whose assistance saw me through some of the most difficult times in cause of this research. My God will continue to water you. This will be incomplete without my appreciating my lovely family. Adachudi -- my wife and best friend -- thank you for remaining very solidly behind me throughout the duration of this programme. You never failed to shield the children or to back my struggles with prayers. I remain indebted to your love, care and understanding as well as your resolute commitment to our home. I can never thank you enough. v Table of Contents Declaration i Certification ii Dedication iii Acknowledgement iv Table of Content vi List of Figures vii List of Tables viii Abbreviation ix Abstract xii vi List of Figures Figure 2.1: A physiograghical map of Somalia 18 Figure 8.1: Alliances of Internal and External Actors in the Somali Conflict 120 Figure 8.2: Combat/Battle-related deaths in Somalia, 2000 – 2012 137 Figure 8.3: Internally Displaced Persons in Somalia resulting from war, 2000 – 2010 139 vii List of Tables Table 1.1 Focus Group participants 13 Table 6.1 Focus Groups responses on the two discussion questions of the involvement and interest/interests of the external actors under study 89 Table 7.1 Focus Groups responses on the discussion on the internal factors which combine with the activities of the external actors to shape and/or drive the conflict? 115 Table 8.1 The role of external actors in the Somali conflict 118 Table 8.2 External actors’ involvement with internal actors in the Somali conflict 131 Table 8.3 Weapons bought inside Somalia by the various internal actors, April 2006 – Sept 2006 133 Table 8.4 Weapons bought inside Somalia by the various internal actors, Dec 2006 – May 2007 134 Table 8.5 Prices of Arms at the Bakaraaha Arms Market January 2006 – May 2007 with the percentage downward or upward price movement from the previous period. (Prices are in US Dollars) 136 Table 9.1: Responses of participants in the Focus Group discussions on the solutions for ending the Somalia conflict 152 viii Abbreviations ACDSS – African Centre for Development and Strategic Studies African Union Monitoring Operation in Somalia AIAI – Al Ittihad Al Islamiyya AMCP – Aggressive Manifest Conflict Process AMISOM – African Union Mission in Somalia ANC – African National Congress ARPCT – Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Counterterrorism ARS – Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia ASSA – Association of Somalis in South Africa AU – African Union CDC – Centre for Disease Control and Prevention CIA – Central Intelligence Agency CJTF-HOA – Combined Joint Task Force: Horn of Africa COW – Correlates of War DFID – Department for International Development DRC – Democratic Republic of Congo ECOMOG – Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group EJIM – Eritrean Islamic Jihadi Movement ETH – Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology) FCESA – Former Clan Elders in South Africa FGD focussed group discussion FMFK – Former Militia Fighters in Kenya FMFSA – Former Militia Fighters in South Africa FSO – Foreign State Occupation HDM – Hizbia Digale Mirifle ICG – International Crisis Group ICTY – The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ICU – Islamic Courts Union IGAD – Intergovernmental Authority for Development IMF – International Monetary Fund LAS – League of Arab States LASSA – Leadership Association of Somalis in South Africa ix MCP – Manifest Conflict Process NGO – Non Governmental Organization OAU – Organization of African Unity OIC – Organization of the Islamic Conference RENAMO – Resistência Nacional Moçambicana (The Mozambican National Resistance) RRA – Rahanweyn Resistance Army SAP – Structural Adjustment Programmes SCLK – Somali Camp Leadership in Kenya SDP – Somali Democratic Party SNA – Somali National Alliance SNC – Somali National Congress SNL – Somali National League SNM – Somali National Movement SNM – Somali National Movement SPM – Somali Patriotic Movement SRRC – Somali Restoration and Reconciliation Committee SSA – Somali Salvation Alliance SSDF – Somali Salvation Democratic Front SWAPO – South West African Peoples Organization SWSA – Somali Women in South