INVESTIGATION OF BIO-ECOLOGICAL FACTORS INFLUENCING INFESTATION BY THE PASSIONVINE MEALYBUG, PLANOCOCCUS MINOR (MASKELL) (HEMIPTERA: PSEUDOCOCCIDAE) IN TRINIDAD FOR APPLICATION TOWARDS ITS MANAGEMENT By ANTONIO WILLIAM FRANCIS A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2011 1 © 2011 Antonio William Francis 2 To my wife, Sandrene, my mother, Veronica, and my sister, Icilma, without whom this degree would not have been possible 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank the following institutions and people for their support. I thank the USDA APHIS Center for Plant Health, Science and Technology (CPHST) and the Center for Biological Control, College of Engineering Sciences, Technology and Agriculture (CBC-CESTA-FAMU) for the funding that allowed me to conduct this research. I thank my committee members, Dr. Moses Kairo, Dr. Raymond Hix, Dr. Amy Roda, Dr. Oscar Liburd, Dr. Lance Osborne, and Dr. Tim Momol, for their input and feedback on my research. I thank the staff at CAB International Regional Office for Latin America and at the Caribbean and at the Central Experiment Station, Trinidad for supplying facilities, equipment, and transportation for my research. I thank Dr. Stuart Reitz and Mr. Gilbert Queeley for their assistance with the statistical analyses. I thank my family and friends for their moral support. Finally, I would like to especially thank Dr. Moses Kairo for his efforts as my advisor and committee chair. 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................. 4 LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ 8 LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... 9 ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... 11 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 13 2 LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................... 16 Origin, Distribution, and Taxonomy ......................................................................... 16 Description .............................................................................................................. 17 Biology and Ecology ............................................................................................... 18 Developmental Biology ..................................................................................... 18 Importance of Temperature/Development Data ............................................... 19 Reproductive Biology ....................................................................................... 20 Attendant Ants .................................................................................................. 20 Injury Symptoms ..................................................................................................... 21 Economic Importance and Host Range .................................................................. 22 Establishment in the Neotropics and Risk Potential to the U.S. .............................. 23 Control Options ....................................................................................................... 25 Monitoring and Detection.................................................................................. 25 Chemical Control .............................................................................................. 26 Biological Control ............................................................................................. 26 Predators ................................................................................................... 27 Parasitoids ................................................................................................. 28 Research Goal and Objectives ............................................................................... 32 3 LIFE HISTORY OF PLANOCOCCUS MINOR (MASKELL) (HEMIPTERA: PSEUDOCOCCIDAE) AT CONSTANT TEMPERATURES .................................... 35 Materials and Methods............................................................................................ 37 Maintenance of Host Material and Colony of P. minor ..................................... 37 Development, Survival, and Sex Ratio ............................................................. 37 Thermal Requirements ..................................................................................... 39 Reproduction .................................................................................................... 40 Adult Longevity ................................................................................................. 41 Data Analysis ................................................................................................... 41 Life Table Parameters ...................................................................................... 42 Results .................................................................................................................... 42 5 Development, Survival, and Sex Ratio ............................................................. 42 Thermal Requirements ..................................................................................... 43 Reproduction and Adult Longevity .................................................................... 44 Life Table Parameters ...................................................................................... 44 Discussion .............................................................................................................. 45 4 SURVEY FOR PLANOCOCCUS MINOR (MASKELL) (HEMIPTERA: PSEUDOCOCCIDAE) AND ITS NATURAL ENEMIES IN TRINIDAD .................... 53 Materials and Methods............................................................................................ 55 Maintenance of Host Material and Colony of P. minor ..................................... 55 Occurrence and Pest Status of P. minor .......................................................... 56 Natural Enemies of P. minor ............................................................................. 58 Predators ................................................................................................... 60 Parasitoids ................................................................................................. 60 Mealybug Identification and Natural Enemy Identification ................................ 61 Sex Pheromone-trapping for Planococcus spp. ............................................... 61 Data Analysis ................................................................................................... 62 Results .................................................................................................................... 63 Occurrence and Pest Status of P. minor .......................................................... 63 Natural enemies of P. minor ............................................................................. 63 Predators ................................................................................................... 63 Parasitoids ................................................................................................. 64 Sex Pheromone-trapping for Planococcus spp. ............................................... 65 Discussion .............................................................................................................. 66 5 FIELD ASSESSMENT OF TWO PRIMARY PARASITOIDS OF PLANOCOCCUS MINOR (MASKELL) (HEMIPTERA: PSEUDOCOCCIDAE) ....... 84 Materials and Methods............................................................................................ 85 Preparation of Host Plant Material .................................................................... 85 Mealybug Rearing ............................................................................................ 86 Preparation of P. minor Colonies on Potatoes for Field Deployment ................ 86 Field Site .......................................................................................................... 87 Field Protocol ................................................................................................... 87 Processing Infested Potatoes ........................................................................... 89 Data Analysis ................................................................................................... 89 Results .................................................................................................................... 90 Relative Abundance and Seasonal Occurrence of Parasitoids ........................ 90 Role of Attendant Ants ..................................................................................... 90 Discussion .............................................................................................................. 91 6 HOST STAGE SELECTION BY TWO ENCYRTID ENDOPARASITOIDS, LEPTOMASTIX DACTYLOPII HOWARD AND COCCIDOXENOIDES PERMINUTUS GIRAULT, ATTACKING PLANOCOCCUS MINOR (MASKELL) (HEMIPTERA: PSEUDOCOCCIDAE)..................................................................... 98 6 Materials and Methods...........................................................................................