Glossary 1. ahl al-kitab: “People of the Book” (see, e.g., Q 2:105, 109; 3:64, 65). In the Quran, a term used ​ for those people (such as Jews and Christians) who have already received revelation (from the heavenly “Book”). 2. apostle, messenger, prophet: “Apostle” and “messenger” are commonly used to translate the ​ Arabic word rasul. The Qurʾan uses rasul to describe (in addition to angels) those humans who ​ ​ ​ ​ receive a message from God and who are sent to preach that message to a people. “Prophet” is commonly used to translate the Arabic word nabi. In the Qurʾan, nabi seems to be used ​ ​ ​ ​ interchangeably with rasul, but later Muslims often maintain that a rasul is a particular sort of ​ ​ ​ ​ prophet (nabi), namely, one who has a written revelation. ​ ​ 3. caliph: Arabic khalifa, meaning “representative” or “successor.” The Qurʾan (2:30) describes ​ ​ ​ Adam as a khalifa. Historically, Muslims used this term for political leaders, the “successors” to the Prophet Muhammad. 4. fatwa: A juridical opinion offered by a Muslim authority, or Mufti, upon receipt of a question. ​ Fatwas are meant to represent the position of the eternal divine law, or sharia, which is knowable above all through the Qurʾan and the hadith. 5. hadith: A term that usually indicates a report of Muhammad’s words or deeds, generally ​ attributed to an eyewitness from among his companions or wives and often accompanied with a chain of transmission to support its claim to authenticity. As later Islamic tradition concluded that Muhammad was protected by God from sin or error, the hadith are largely ​ ​ considered a source of revelation second only to the Quran. 6. hijra: The Arabic term for the migration of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina (which, ​ according to the traditional date, took place in 622 CE). The hijra was later chosen to mark the ​ ​ ​ ​ beginning of the Islamic calendar. 7. injil: The term (from Greek euangelion, “gospel”) used by the Quran to refer to a revelation ​ ​ ​ given to Jesus. According to certain Islamic traditions, this revelation was lost, or destroyed intentionally, and the Christian New Testament written in its place. 8. jahiliyya: The “state” or “era” “of ignorance” (see Q 3:154; 5:50; 33:33; 48:26). In later Islamic ​ literature, the term is used in particular for the pagan culture of pre-Islamic Arabia, although some Islamists such as Sayyid Qutb use this term for modern societies that do not implement Islamic law. 9. jinn: According to Islamic tradition a class of beings created from fire who (like the demons) ​ ​ seek to enter into heaven to hear divine secrets. Some of them (see Q 72, named “the Jinn”) come to believe. The jinn gave us the “genies” of the Arabian Nights and the Disney movie ​ ​ Aladdin. ​ 10. Kaʿba: The black square building in Mecca around which Muslim pilgrims process, and the ​ direction toward which all Muslims pray. According to Islamic tradition, the Kaʿba was originally built by Abraham and Ishmael (or by Adam, and only rebuilt by Abraham and Ishamel) for the worship of God. In Muhammad’s day, the Kaʿba had become a site of pagan worship. The Prophet destroyed the idols inside upon his conquest of Mecca. 11. Khadija: According to traditional sources, Khadija was a wealthy merchant in Mecca who hired ​ Muhammad when she had been told that he was favored by God. She and Muhammad were later married, and she gave birth to his daughter Fatima. Muhammad never married another woman as long as Khadija lived. 12. qibla: The direction of Islamic ritual prayer, namely, Mecca (or more specifically the Kaʿba). ​ According to the traditional biography, however, the qibla was Jerusalem for a period of time ​ ​ toward the beginning Muhammad’s stay in Medina. This idea stems from Q 2:144 in which the divine voice of the Quran declares: “So turn your face towards the Sacred Mosque.” 13. Quraysh: According to the traditional biography, the principal tribe of Mecca, to which ​ Muhammad himself belonged. The Quraysh are reviled in this biography for their stubborn opposition to the Prophet. However those Quraysh who became Muslims were later considered to have a certain merit because of their genealogical proximity to him. 14. shariʿa: The Islamic law established by God, covering all aspects of religious, social, political, ​ and personal life. According to standard Islamic teaching, Muhammad implemented the sharia perfectly in the state he established in Medina, and Muslims are called to establish Islamic states based on sharia by implementing rules, policies, and laws based on the Qurʾan, the hadith, reasoning by analogy, and consensus. 15. shirk: A term based in the frequent Quranic condemnations of those who attribute power or ​ authority to anything or anyone other than God. Muslim scholars frequently accuse Christians of shirk (since from an Islamic perspective God did not become man in Christ, Christians made ​ ​ a man into a God). 16. Sura: The Arabic name used to describe the 114 units (or chapters of the Quran). According ​ to traditional Islamic teaching the order of Suras in the compiled Quran does not match the chronological order in which God revealed Suras to Muhammad (instead it matches rather a heavenly archetype of the Quran). As a rule individual Suras of the Quran do not address one particular topic but incorporate a variety of different topics. 17. tafsir: The genre of Islamic literature dedicated to commentary on the Quran. Most works of ​ tafsir proceed verse by verse (or passage by passage) through the entire text of the Quran. ​ Muslim scholars have long debated whether these commentaries should be based only on traditional reports (or “hadith” - see above) or also on the independent reasoning of the interpreter. 18. tawrat: The term (from Hebrew torah) used by the Quran to refer to a revelation given to Moses. ​ ​ ​ ​ According to later Islamic tradition, this revelation was lost, or destroyed intentionally, and the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament was written in its place. .