National Water Summary- Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS 19 Technical Aspects of Wetlands History of Wetlands in the Conterminous United States By Thomas E. Dahl 1 and Gregory J. Al lord 2 At the time of European settlement in the early EARLY 1600'S TO 1800-COlONIAl 1600's, the area that was to become the conterminous SETTLEMENT United States had approximately 22 1 million acres of wetlands. About 103 rni ll ion acres remained as of the Wetl and drainage began with permanent settle­ mid-1980's (Dahl and Johnson, 199 1). Six States lost ment of Colonial Ameri ca. Throughout the 1600's and 85 percent or more of their ori ginal wetland acreage­ 1700's, colonizati on was encouraged by European twenty-two lost 50 percent or more (Dahl, 1990) (fig. monarchs to establi sh footholds in orth Ameri ca. 2). Even today, all of the effects of these losses mi ght The effects of this colonization on the landscape be­ Interest in the not be fully realized. came obvious in the early to mid-1700's. preservation of Historical events, technological innovations, and Much of our knowledge of early wetlands comes va lu es of society sometimes had destructive effects from maps and other documents th at survived over wetlands has on wetlands. By examining the histori cal backdrop of time. The origins of settlers influenced both where increased as the why things happened, when they happened, and the people settled and how they mapped and used natu­ value of wetlands consequences of what happened, society can better ral resources. Few records exist because the origin al appreciate th e importance of wetlands in water-re­ English, French, and Spanish settlements were estab­ has become more source issues. Society' views about wetlands have lished before the land was surveyed. Settlements in fully understood. changed con iderably-especially in th e last half the North tended to be clustered, whereas communi­ century. Interest in the preservation of wetlands has ti es in the South were more widely scattered because increased a the valu e of wetlands to society has be­ of the predominance of agri culture. Many different come more full y understood. From a cultural stand­ land surveying systems resulted in an incomplete point, it is interesting to understand how changes in patchwork of ownership th at ultimately caused many opinions and valu es came about , and what effects legal problems due to boundary errors and overl ap­ the e changes had on wetland resources. From an eco­ ping claims (Garrett, 1988). It was not until 1785 th at logical perspective, it is important to understand how the Land Ordinance Act establi shed the United States the loss of wetl ands affects fis h, wildli fe, and the Publi c Land Survey, which required survey in g and environment as a whole. partitioning of land prior to settlement. Although not EXPLANATIO N Pe rcent of w etlands lost . 1780's to mid·1980's D Less than 50 D 50 - 85 (16 States) D More than 85 (6 States) I I I I I I 500 KI LOMETERS Figure 2. States with notable wetland loss, 1780's to mid-1980's. (So urce: Modified from Dahl, 7990n.)mm , U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. , U.S. Geologica l Survey. 20 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES The original extent of wetland acreage and the effect of widespread drainage is evident in Washington County, N.C. Originally, wetlands covered over 186,000 acres or about 85 percent of the land area of Washington County. Large-sca le drain age began as earl y as 1788 VIRt,INIA Great with the constru cti on of a canal 6 mil es long and 20 feet wide to drain the wetlands north and Dismal east of Phelps Lake (Was hingto n County Histo ri cal Society, 1979). A system of cross ditches Swamp leading into the main canal was designed to drain up to 100,000 acres of wetlands so th at ri ce I\ORTH Albemarle and corn could be grown (Ta nt, 1981). Today, about 34 percent of Washington County's CAROLINA Sound origin al wetland acreage remains in scattered tracts. Wa shington County Bertie Bertie County County o 100 MILES I------r-'-r--' Washington Washington o 100 KI LOMETERS County County Tyrrell Phelps Phelps County Lake La ke Pungo Beaufort Hyde EXPLANATION Beaufort Hyde County County County County D Wetlands Figure 3. Extent of wetlands in Washington County, N. c. , circa 1780 (left ) and 1990 (ri ght). (Source: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Status and Trends, unpub. data, 1994.) established to provide in formati on on natural re­ lina were surveyed in 1763 so that land could be re­ sources, surveys do provide some in formation about claimed for water transpOltati on routes. Farmin g on the distribution and location of wetlands. large pl antations was common practice in the South During the 1700's, wetl ands were regarded as and necessitated some drain age or manipulation of swampy lands that bred di seases, restricted overl and wetlands. Technical advances travel , impeded the production offood and fiber, and By the 1780's, immigrants had settled along the facilitated wetland generally were not useful for fro nti er survival. Set­ fertile ri ver va ll eys of the Northeast and as far south tlers, commercial interests, and governments agreed as present-day Georgia. Wetlands in these river val ­ conversIOn. that wetlands presented obstacles to development, and leys suffered losses with this settlement (fig. 4). Small that wetlands should be eliminated and the land re­ towns and farms were estab li shed in the valleys along claimed for other purposes. Most pioneers viewed the rivers of Massachusetts, Conn ecticut, New York, natural resources from wetlands as things to be used and Pennsylvania. Settlement ex tended to the valleys without limit (Tebeau, 1980). The most productive beyond the Appalachian Mountains in Virginia and tracts of land in ferti le ri ver valleys in parts of Vir­ followed the major rivers inl and through the Caroli­ gini a had been claimed and occupied before 1700. nas by 1800. The resulting shortage of choice land stimulated colo- nists to move south to the ri ch bottom lands along the Chowan River and Albemarle Sound of North Caroli na on the fl at Atlan- tic coastal plain. Initially, settlements con­ sisted primarily of shelters and subsistence farms on small tracts of land . To extend the productive value of avail able land, wetlands on these small tracts were drained by small hand-dug ditches. During the mid- to late 1700's, as the population grew, land clear­ ing and farming for profit began to affect larger tracts of land ; many coastal plain wet­ Figure 4. States with notabl e wetland loss, lands were converted to farmland (fig. 3). earl y 1600's to 1800. Once drained, these areas provided produc­ tive agricultural lands for growin g cash 1800 TO 1860-WESTWARD crops. Oil -powered dredge di gg in g a EXPANSION 30-foot-wid e ditch to drain Widespread wetland drainage was most wetl and s near Ca rro ll , Iowa. prevalent in the southern colonies. In 1754, The period between 1800 and 1860 was a time (Photograph courtesy of National South Carolina authorized the drainage of of growth in the United States. During these decades, Archives, 8-0 -2214-2570.) Cacaw Swamp for agricultural use (Beau­ numerous land acquisitions- the Louisiana Purchase champ, 1987). Similarly, areas of the Great ( 1803); Florida and eastern Loui siana ceded by Spain Dismal Swamp in Virginia and North Caro- (18 19); annexation of Texas ( 1845); the Oregon Com- National Water Summary- Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS 21 in the Midwest (Ross, 1956). These inno­ vations ultimately took a toll on wetl ands as more land was drained, cleared, and plowed for farming. Wetl and drain age conti nu ed. In the Midwest, the drainage of th e Lake Erie marshes of Michigan and Ohio probably started about 1836. Cotton and tobacco farming continued to flourish in the South­ ern States and precipitated the additional drainage of thousands of acres of wetland s for conversion to cropland. Wetlands also were being modifi ed in other ways. The Horicon Marsh in Wiscon­ sin was dammed and flooded in 1846 for a transportation route and to provide com­ mercial fi shing. Toward the middle of the Figure 5. Major United Sta tes land acq ui sition s between 1800 century, lumbering was an important in- and 1860. (So urce: U.S. Geologica l Survey, 1970.) dustry in the Midwest, supplying wood for construction and fuel for stoves and fire­ promise ( 1846); and land s ceded from Mex ico places. Much of the ation's timber came from the ( I 848)-greatly expanded the land area of the United swamp forests of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, which States (Garrett, 1988) (fig. 5). With thi s land ex pan­ typicall y contained a mi x of birch, ash, elm, oak, cot­ sion , the population grew from 7.2 million in 1810 tonwood, poplar, maple, basswood, and hickory. to 12.8 million in 1830 (U.S. Bureau of the Census, In 1849, Congress passed the first of the Swamp 1832). Land speculation increased with this rapid Land Acts, which granted all swamp and overfl ow growth and marked a period when land and resources lands in Loui siana to the State for reclamation . In seemed to be avai labl e for the taking. It was a time of 1850, the Act was made applicable to 12 other States, rapid inland movement of settlers westward into the and in 1860, it was extended to include lands in two Tab le 1.