Global Animal Law and International Trade Law After EC – Seal Products: An Interactional Analysis by Katie Sykes Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia November 2019 © Copyright by Katie Sykes, 2019 TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ....................................................................................................... x List Of Abbreviations ........................................................................................... xi Acknowledgments ............................................................................................ xiii Chapter 1 Introduction.................................................................................... 1 Chapter 2 The Sea Change of Seal Products .................................................. 12 2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 12 2.2 Stage One: “A Malign Influence”......................................................... 13 2.2.1 Beyond the WTO: Mega-Regional Trade Agreements as a Threat to Animals .............. 21 2.3 Stage Two: A Sheep in Wolf’s Clothing? .............................................. 23 2.4 Stage Three: Towards “Syncretic Norms”? .......................................... 28 2.5 Conclusion .......................................................................................... 30 Chapter 3 Methodological Framework: Interactional International Law ........ 33 3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 33 3.2 Why a Constructivist Methodology? ................................................... 34 3.3 Norms and Shared Understandings .................................................... 45 3.3.1 The Constructivist Understanding of Norms ................................... 45 3.3.2 International Norms and Animal Protection ................................... 47 3.3.3 The Norm Cycle .............................................................................. 52 3.3.4 Epistemic Communities .................................................................. 54 ii 3.3.5 Regime Encounters ......................................................................... 56 3.3.6 From Norms to Law ........................................................................ 59 3.4 The Distinctive Qualities of Law .......................................................... 60 3.4.1 Traditional Sources ......................................................................... 60 3.4.2 Evolving Law-Making Processes ...................................................... 62 3.4.3 Fuller’s Criteria of Legality .............................................................. 65 3.5 The Practice of Legality ....................................................................... 68 3.6 The Idea of a Continuum of Legality ................................................... 70 3.7 Conclusion .......................................................................................... 71 Chapter 4 Global Animal Law ........................................................................ 74 4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 74 4.2 What is Global Animal Law? ............................................................... 75 4.2.1 The Need for a Transnational Approach.......................................... 78 4.2.2 The ‘Animal Turn’ and Global Animal Law ....................................... 82 4.3 International Environmental Law ........................................................ 88 4.4 Animal Welfare and International Law................................................ 94 4.4.1 Aspirations ..................................................................................... 96 4.4.2 Secondary Law................................................................................ 98 4.4.3 Welfare in Environmental Treaty Law ........................................... 100 4.5 Animal Rights and International Law ................................................ 103 4.5.1 Adjacency: Animal Rights and Human Rights ................................ 103 4.5.2 The Universal Declaration of Animal Rights .................................. 105 iii 4.5.3 Great Apes .................................................................................... 107 4.5.4 Cetaceans ..................................................................................... 109 4.6 Is Global Animal Law Law? ................................................................ 111 4.6.1 Traditional Sources: Treaties and General Principles ..................... 112 4.6.2 Shared Understandings ................................................................ 115 4.6.3 Noncompliance and the Congruence Requirement ....................... 117 4.7 Conclusion ........................................................................................ 122 Chapter 5 The International Trade Regime: Origins, Fundamental Doctrines, and Norm Creation .................. 124 5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 124 5.2 The History of the International Trade Regime ................................. 125 5.2.1 Origins: Classical Economic Arguments for Liberalized Trade ........ 125 5.2.2 Bilateralism and the Most-Favoured Nation Network ................... 130 5.2.3 Interwar Protectionism and the Turn to Multilateral Trade Governance ............................ 131 5.3 The GATT Era .................................................................................... 135 5.4 The WTO .......................................................................................... 138 5.4.1 The New WTO Agreements........................................................... 139 5.4.2 The WTO Dispute Settlement Body............................................... 142 5.5 Key Legal Provisions Relevant to Animal Protection .......................... 144 5.5.1 GATT............................................................................................. 145 5.5.1.1 Border Measures ................................................................... 146 5.5.1.2 Nondiscrimination ................................................................. 146 iv 5.5.1.3 The General Exceptions ......................................................... 148 5.5.2 The TBT Agreement ...................................................................... 150 5.5.3 Other Provisions: Sustainable Development and Agriculture ........ 153 5.6 Theoretical Questions About the International Trade Regime .......... 155 5.6.1 Why International Regulation of Trade? ....................................... 156 5.6.2 What is the Relationship between Trade and Distributive Justice? ..................................................... 158 5.6.3 How Does Trade Law Constrain Regulatory Sovereignty? ............. 159 5.7 Trade Law and Practices of Legality .................................................. 163 5.8 Conclusion ........................................................................................ 165 Chapter 6 Animal Protection Controversies and International Trade Law .... 166 6.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 166 6.2 The By-catch Cases ........................................................................... 167 6.2.1 Tuna and Dolphins ........................................................................ 169 6.2.1.1 Tuna-Dolphin I: First GATT Panel Decision .............................. 174 6.2.1.2 Tuna-Dolphin II: Second GATT Panel Decision ........................ 180 6.2.1.3 The International Dolphin Conservation Program and the IDCPA ........................................................................ 184 6.2.1.4 Tuna-Dolphin III: WTO Decision ............................................. 186 6.2.2 Shrimp and Sea Turtles ................................................................. 197 6.2.2.1 Sea Turtle Conservation and TEDs .......................................... 198 6.2.2.2 The US-Shrimp Appellate Body Report ................................... 203 6.2.2.3 Compliance Proceedings ........................................................ 211 v 6.2.3 The By-catch Cases as Animal Protection Cases ............................ 214 6.3 Fur .................................................................................................... 215 6.4 Farmed Animal Welfare .................................................................... 221 6.5 Cosmetics Testing ............................................................................. 228 6.6 The Emergence of Animal Protection Norms and Trade Law as a Practice of Legality ............................................. 231 6.6.1 Norms and Shared Understandings .............................................. 232 6.6.2 WTO Jurisprudence as a Practice of Legality ................................. 236 6.7 Conclusion ........................................................................................ 238 Chapter 7 EC – Seal Products ....................................................................... 240 7.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 240 7.2 The EU Seals Measure ...................................................................... 244 7.2.1 The 2009 Seals Regulation ...........................................................