Executive Function: Implications for Education Authors Philip David Zelazo Clancy B. Blair Michael T. Willoughby National Center for Education Research (NCER) Meredith Larson (Project Officer) Erin Higgins National Center for Special Education Research (NCSER) Amy Sussman NCER 2017-2000 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION This paper was prepared for the National Center for Education Research, Institute of Education Sciences under Contract ED-IES-12-D-0015. Meredith Larson was the project officer. Disclaimer The Institute of Education Sciences at the U.S. Department of Education contracted with Westat to develop a paper on executive function. The views expressed in this report are those of the authors, and they do not necessarily represent the opinions and positions of the Institute of Education Sciences or the U.S. Department of Education. U.S. Department of Education John B. King, Jr, Secretary Institute of Education Sciences Ruth Neild, Deputy Director for Policy and Research, Delegated Duties of the Director National Center for Education Research Thomas W. Brock, Commissioner National Center for Special Education Research Joan McLaughlin, Commissioner This report is in the public domain. Authorization to reproduce it in whole or in part is granted. Although permission to reprint this publication is not necessary, the citation should be: Zelazo, P.D., Blair, C.B., and Willoughby, M.T. (2016). Executive Function: Implications for Education (NCER 2017-2000) Washington, DC: National Center for Education Research, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. This report is available on the Institute website at http://ies.ed.gov/. Alternate Formats Upon request, this report is available in alternate formats such as Braille, large print, audiotape, or computer diskette. For more information, please contact the Department’s Alternate Format Center at 202-260-0852 or 202-260-0818. Disclosure of Potential Conflict of Interest Westat Inc. is the prime contractor for the NCER Analysis and Research Management Support project, under which this paper was developed. Tamara Nimkoff was the project manager. Philip Zelazo, author on this paper, is entitled to royalties from the sale of the Minnesota Executive Function Scale (MEFS) by Reflection Sciences, LLC, along with Stephanie Carlson and the University of Minnesota. The authors of this paper are not aware of any conflicts of interest. Authors’ Note All authors contributed equally, and author order was determined arbitrarily. While all authors contributed to all chapters, each author was primarily responsible for drafting different chapters or sections within chapters: Zelazo (chapter 1, sections 1.1-1.4 and 1.6; chapter 2), Blair (chapter 1, section 1.5; chapters 5-6), and Willoughby (chapters 3-4). The authors drafted chapter 7 jointly. Contents 1. Introduction.................................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Definition of Executive Function: What It Is and What It Is Not ................................................. 2 1.2 Executive Function in Relation to Other Constructs ...................................................................... 3 1.3 A Levels of Analysis Approach to Executive Function: Neural, Cognitive, and Behavioral ..... 5 1.4 “Hot” Versus “Cool” Executive Function ........................................................................................ 8 1.5. Neural Basis for Executive Function ................................................................................................ 10 1.5.1 PFC Connectivity ......................................................................................................................... 12 1.5.2 The Role of Neurotransmitters in PFC Function ................................................................... 13 1.5.3 PFC and Motivation .................................................................................................................... 13 1.5.4 PFC Development ....................................................................................................................... 14 1.5.5 Neural Plasticity: Experiential Influences on Brain Development ....................................... 15 1.5.6 Sensitive Periods in Brain Development .................................................................................. 16 1.6 Summary................................................................................................................................................ 17 2. The Role That Executive Function Plays in Learning and Adaptation ............................................... 19 2.1 Executive Function and Learning in School ..................................................................................... 20 2.2 Difficulties With Executive Function Are a Prominent Feature of Many Disabilities and Disorders that Interfere With Learning ................................................................................................... 25 2.3 Summary................................................................................................................................................ 27 3. Assessment of Executive Function ........................................................................................................... 28 3.1 Historical Context for Assessing Executive Function in Children ................................................ 28 3.2 Approaches to Assessment .................................................................................................................. 29 3.3 Assessment Challenges ......................................................................................................................... 33 3.3.1 Measurement Impurity ................................................................................................................. 33 3.3.2 Ecological Validity ......................................................................................................................... 35 3.3.3 Poor Convergence between Questionnaire and Performance-Based Tasks ........................ 36 3.4 Decision Rules for Assessing Executive Functions in Educational Settings .............................. 37 3.4.1 Academic Impairments................................................................................................................. 38 3.4.2 Differentiated Instruction ............................................................................................................ 38 3.4.3. Intervention and Individual Progress Monitoring ................................................................... 39 3.5 Summary ................................................................................................................................................. 40 4. Developmental Change in Executive Function ...................................................................................... 42 4.1 Changes in the Structure of EF ......................................................................................................... 42 4.2 Changes in the Level or Efficiency of EF Skills.............................................................................. 45 4.2.1 Evidence from Cross-Sectional Studies ..................................................................................... 45 4.2.2 Evidence from Longitudinal Studies .......................................................................................... 47 4.2.3 Integrating Evidence Across Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Studies and Implications for Educators ........................................................................................................................................... 48 4.3 Summary................................................................................................................................................ 50 5. Individual Differences in Executive Function Development ............................................................... 52 5.1 Temperament and Executive Function ............................................................................................ 52 5.2 Individual Differences in Executive Function Associated With Cognitive Ability, Sex, and Genes ............................................................................................................................................................ 53 5.3 Individual Differences in Executive Function Associated With Experience ............................. 55 5.4 Summary................................................................................................................................................ 57 6. Malleability of Executive Function ........................................................................................................... 58 6.1 Educational Practices Designed to Promote Executive Function As a Means to Promote Academic Abilities ....................................................................................................................................... 58 6.2 Direct Approaches to the Improvement of Executive Function Without a Focus on Academic Abilities: Working Memory Training ..................................................................................... 62 6.2.1 Near Transfer of Working Memory Training .......................................................................... 63 6.2.2 Far Transfer of Working Memory Training ............................................................................