ARCHAEOLOGY AS SCIENCE ALTERNATIVE ARCHAEOLOGIES ARCH 0440 Archaeologies of the Ancient Middle East Total Station Cycladic Figurines Origins of Archaeology The earliest evidence of conscious recognition of ancient objects comes from early state societies These excavations were not done to learn about the past—not archaeological Nabonidus, made king of Babylon in 556 BC, excavated temple ruins to rededicate them to deities Thutmose IV (1412-1402 BC) excavated the Sphinx at Giza because he dreamed the sun god would make him Pharaoh if he did so Emergence of Archaeology Organizing time—the Three Age System Divided prehistory into Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages Developed by C.J. Thomsen, a Danish antiquarian Establishment of Human Antiquity Irrefutable evidence for the existence of human remains with extinct animals built up in the 1800s In 1857, a Neanderthal skull provided evidence of a premodern human 1859, Darwin published The Origin of Species, putting the theory of biological evolution on solid ground Developing Method and Theory Stratigraphic Method Sir Flinders Petrie pioneered the methods of stratigraphic excavation and seriation Culture History North American archaeologists developed culture histories through formal schemes that classified sites into culture groups Developing Method and Theory V. Gordon Childe • Recognized patterning in archaeological collections across Europe • Proposed the occurrence of two worldwide societal revolutions Neolithic revolution—led to the emergence of settled villages and agriculture Urban revolution—led to the appearance of cities and complex forms of government Archaeology as Science Developing Scientific Methods Beginning in the late 1940s, a significant shift occurred in archaeology Archaeologists began to focus on the study of ancient societies Previously archaeology defined itself in terms of recovery and classification of artifacts Inductive and Deductive Reasoning Induction—drawing general inferences on the basis of available data Before the 1960s, characteristic form of archaeological work Deduction—drawing particular inferences from general laws and models Involves hypothesis testing Characteristic of work in hard sciences, characteristic form of archaeological work after the 1960s Processual Archaeology Introduced by Lewis Binford and his supporters in the 1960s Also called New Archaeology New Archaeologists argued that the central problem of archaeology was not the need for more data or better methods Instead, they argued that archaeology needed to focus on deductive scientific work Processualists said that data only tells the archaeologist about past lifeways, or cultural processes, if the correct questions are asked Middle-Range Research Binford emphasized the importance of middle-range research in understanding processes that happened in the past Middle-range research allows archaeologists to make statements about past processes on the basis of observations made on archaeological materials The key is to observe processes in the present and then analyze the material patterning left by those processes Systems Theory New Archaeologists applied systems theory to the study of past societies This element in This element in the system the system affects the next affects the next A system is an interconnected network of elements that together form a whole This element in the system Systems theory enabled affects the next archaeologists to understand change in the archaeological record as the A very simple, three element system wherein each element result of changes in interrelated affects the next. aspects of culture Postprocessual Archaeology Created in reaction to processual archaeology Postprocessualists argue that archaeology should not be a science that emulates the hard sciences like physics Led by Ian Hodder, postprocessualists argue that archaeologists should emulate historians in interpreting the past Postprocessualists work to understand the past from the perspective of the people who lived through the past Hermeneutic Spiral From The Archaeological Process: An Introduction, by Ian Hodder, p. 39, fig. 3.3 (1999). Adapted by permission of Blackwell Publishing. Hermeneutics This concept is central to postprocessual archaeology Hermeneutics is a theory of interpretation that stresses the interaction between the presupositions brought to a problem and the independent empirical reality of observations and experiences Instead of testing archaeological hypotheses, as in New Archaeology, when following a hermeneutic approach archaeologists come with preexisting knowledge and questions Hermeneutic interpretation is an open-ended cycle of continual inquiry Feminist Archaeology Focuses on how archaeologists study gender Works to study gender with the tools of archaeology Examines a wide range of topics For cultures with written records, significant conclusions about gender in ancient societies have been made Focuses on how archaeologists represent gender The invisibility of gender in archaeology has often masked a strong bias towards viewing men as the active agents of change and women as passive followers Concerned with gender inequities in the practice of archaeology Agency Theory The basic unit of archaeology is the individual, not society o Purposeful actions of individual members of society should be the focus of archaeology o Use of this theoretical perspective requires constant balancing between a) recognition that history consists of the choices and actions of individuals, and b) awareness that the choices people make are strongly shaped by the social world and material conditions in which they live Evolutionary Archaeology Developed by archaeologists who stress the importance of evolutionary theory Practitioners see evolutionary theory as a unifying theory for archaeology Encompasses a range of approaches, including Ecological studies—study changes in culture as changes in human adaptation Artifact studies—explain changes in frequencies and types of artifacts at sites in terms of Darwinian theory HISTORY OF ARCHAEOLOGY In the region Dorothy Garrod (1892-1968) • First female professor at Cambridge University (1925-1939) • Excavated Paleolithic Caves in Mt. Carmel, including Tabun, Kebara, and Hayonim Caves Early Archaeological Discoveries Heinrich Schliemann Troy Ausn Henry Layard Nineveh Imperialist Archaeology th 19 century, explosion of exploration in the expanding European Empires Treasure hunters - Belzoni Early Language Discoveries Behistun Rosea Stone Cuneiform (Akkadian) Egypan Hieroglyphs Foreign Research Institutes Albright Instute – United States Ecole Biblique – French School European Museums Emerge Sir William Flinders Petrie (1853 – 1942) Founder of modern Near Eastern Archaeology First to apply stratigraphic method to Near Eastern sites Lost his head (literally!) Colonialism Defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I British (1918 – 1948) and French (1918 -1944) Mandates A Golden Age in Archaeology? Archaeology flourished under the more stable political conditions Several important Biblical sites were excavated during this period Dame Kathleen Kenyon (1906 – 1978) Director of the British School Excavated Jericho and Jerusalem Borrowed excavation techniques from European archaeologists and applied them to Middle Eastern sites Nationalism (1948 – present) Withdrawal of British and French forces from the region Establishment of modern Middle Eastern nations Still obviously contentious National Archaeologies Local archaeologists continued excavations in their countries Departments of Antiquities and teaching universities were established to manage archaeological resources and train future generations New countries looked to archaeology to demonstrate the antiquity of their national identities Yigael Yadin (1917 – 1984) Archaeologist, soldier, and politician Excavated Hazor, Megiddo, Masada Further identified Solomon’s building projects Excavated and helped acquire Dead Sea Scrolls Non-National Archaeologists Permitted to continue their work with the permission of each host country Archaeologists were forced to choose between working in Israel and working in Arab countries A rift emerged between scholars working on either side The Contemporary Scene Peace treaties in the region between Israel, Egypt, Jordan, and Palestine have resulted in periods of relative calm Large-scale excavations relying on volunteer teams in Israel and Jordan These projects have trained the next generation of scholars Archaeology in Lebanon halted for two decades during civil war Archaeology in Syria continues steadily, largely by European and Syrian teams Goals of Research Expanded Scholars still interested in exploring Biblical history through archaeology New effort to understand the cultural practices of Biblical society New interests in the archaeological periods coming before the Biblical period Attempts to apply new scientific techniques in excavation methods Challenges Economic Relevance to Mulple Conflict and Development Stakeholders Wars Tourism and Global Economies Illegal Anquies Markets Archaeological Pracce: Government and Academic Pracces .