George Orwell and Arthur Koestler Looking Back on the Spanish Civil War Babić, Marko Master's thesis / Diplomski rad 2021 Degree Grantor / Ustanova koja je dodijelila akademski / stručni stupanj: University of Zagreb, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences / Sveučilište u Zagrebu, Filozofski fakultet Permanent link / Trajna poveznica: https://urn.nsk.hr/urn:nbn:hr:131:318539 Rights / Prava: In copyright Download date / Datum preuzimanja: 2021-09-28 Repository / Repozitorij: ODRAZ - open repository of the University of Zagreb Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Odsjek za anglistiku Filozofski fakultet Sveučilište u Zagrebu DIPLOMSKI RAD George Orwell and Arthur Koestler Looking Back on the Spanish Civil War Književno-kulturološki smjer Kandidat: Marko Babić Mentorica: dr. sc. Tihana Klepač, doc. Ak. godina: 2020/21. Contents Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1 On Revolution ............................................................................................................................ 3 Working-Class Consciousness ................................................................................................... 7 Distrust and Persecution ........................................................................................................... 10 Truth and Propaganda .............................................................................................................. 16 Scientism and Determinism ..................................................................................................... 21 War Theory and Pacifism ......................................................................................................... 27 Personal experience .................................................................................................................. 32 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 35 Works Cited .............................................................................................................................. 39 Abstract .................................................................................................................................... 44 Babić1 Introduction The Spanish Civil War started on July 17, 1936 when General Francisco Franco rebelled against the forces loyal to the Spanish Government. General Franco emerged victorious from the Spanish Civil War in 1939 establishing a military dictatorship. He ruled as Caudillo1 until his death in 1975. In the 1920s, Spain was on a path to a rapid economic development. However, this process was truncated by the Great Depression. The economic expansion was followed by some socioeconomic changes that would become more prominent in the 1930s. The most significant for Spain was a gradual increase in anti-clerical sentiment. For instance, the Spanish government of 1931-1933 expelled the Jesuits from Spain, and closed Catholic schools in most parts of the country (Payne 15). Another socioeconomic change occurred because of the technological development of the 1930s. Transportation flourished in the 1930s and trains and boats became more widespread. Thus, Spain became more accessible to outside observers (Payne 160). The 1930s also saw a considerable advancement in the print media, as well as radio and the cinema which contributed to the period being referred to as the golden age of the foreign correspondent. Arthur Koestler and George Orwell were amongst the many foreign journalists, writers, and other intellectuals who went to Spain when the war broke out to report on the Spanish question. Koestler’s newspaper reporter credentials were in fact a cover for his secret mission into Franco’s headquarters in Seville where he was supposed to look for evidence of the German and Italian governments violating the Non-intervention Agreement that was intended to prevent the war from further escalation (Scammell, 2001: 91). Orwell, on the contrary, genuinely went to Spain to write newspaper articles, but as soon as he arrived to 1 The title General Franco assumed during the Spanish Civil War as the Spanish equivalent to the titles used by the German Führer and Italian Duce. Babić2 Barcelona he joined the militia of the Workers’ Party of Marxist Unification (the POUM), one of the many Leftist factions in the Republican zone (Orwell, 1938: 1). Both of these writers supported the Republican cause just as was the case with Ernest Hemingway, W. H. Auden, John Dos Passos, and many others who visited the Republican zone (Payne 163). The Spanish conflict was an eye-opening experience for Koestler and Orwell, and marks the first significant event in the development of their Left-wing anti-totalitarian politics. This development was signalled in their memoirs of the Spanish War. Koestler’s Spanish Testament was published by Victor Gollancz in 1937 and consists of two parts. The first deals with his journey from Belgium, where he was staying when the war broke out, to Málaga. The other part of the memoir is a personal account of the time Koestler spent in the Seville prison where he was taken to when Málaga fell into the hands of the Nationalists. Orwell’s memoir Homage to Catalonia was first published by Secker and Warburg in April 1938. Even though Orwell’s works were usually published by Victor Gollancz, the Spanish memoir was rejected because Orwell was associated with the POUM, and therefore considered a “Trotskyist” (Orwell, 1968a: 279). Homage to Catalonia is Orwell’s account of the revolution in Barcelona and its crushing by the Republican government in May 1937, as well as his combat experience. Their memoirs are a valuable contribution to the understanding of the “Spanish question”. Both authors discussed the nature of the Spanish conflict, but disagreed on the issue of it being a revolution. When commenting on the war strategy and discipline of the Republican Army, they both offer their insights into the working-class consciousness. Both Koestler and Orwell were subject to some form of prosecution in Spain, and their memoirs are early accounts of the workings of totalitarian governments. Babić3 Another topic worth exploring is their view of the propaganda since the Spanish War was the first European civil war in which propaganda played such a great role. Both writers saw the most advanced technology used to advance totalitarian ideals and wondered whether the idea of Progress had come to an end in 1936. In the aftermath of the First World War, an atmosphere of pacifism was widespread in the ranks of Leftist organisations in Europe, but the Spanish War brought an end to it. Finally, it is important to stress that the conflict was of great importance for both authors on the personal level. The memoirs reveal the ways in which the Spanish Civil War changed the outlook and values of these writers. It offered them a greater level of understanding of totalitarian governments and an opportunity to recalibrate their ideological worldviews. To put it differently, the analysis of the memoirs helps us understand what Orwell meant by “History stopped in 1936” when he said it to Koestler. And why his interlocutor “nodded in immediate understanding” (Orwell, 1968b: 179). The Spanish Civil War helped Koestler and Orwell understand the workings of totalitarian regimes. Because of his party affiliation, Koestler’s perception of this Spanish revolution, as well as his Spanish memoir, is considerably different. While Orwell deemed the atmosphere in Barcelona as revolutionary, Koestler’s memoir is a work of propaganda because he deliberately tried to conceal the revolutionary character of the Republican zone. Because of their Spanish experience, they would also become vociferous critics of the Soviet regime since they were both persecuted for the first time in their lives by totalitarian governments. On Revolution Even though many regard the Spanish Civil War as a struggle between democracy and Fascism, a genuine social and economic revolution actually took place in areas controlled by Babić4 the Republicans. It was genuine for it was carried out by worker organisations, not parties or non-worker groups. Not only worker organisations, but also hundreds of thousands of agrarian workers and small farmers, distinguishing the Spanish revolution from the Russian one which occurred two decades before (Payne 93). Yet, it is not uncommon that wars and revolutions are interrelated (Arendt, 1963: 17-8). The American Revolution was accompanied by a war of liberation, the French Revolution was followed by wars of defence and aggression, and in the case of Spain, a revolution erupted following the Spanish coup of July 1936. Aside from being closely related to wars, these revolutions have also been seen as “ushering in a new era for all mankind” (Arendt, 1963: 53) and the idea of world history was born out of these events. Andreu Nin, the leader of the POUM, argued that the Spanish revolution was “a more profound revolution than the Russian Revolution” on account of the fact that “the government did not exist” (Payne 95). It seems all the more logical that Orwell and Koestler would be attracted to the events of the Spanish crisis because the conflict did not appear distant, but resembled an event of great historical importance for the entire world. Orwell travelled to Spain precisely because he deemed the events in Spain revolutionary.