Department of Politics University of Sheffield Title: Understanding the Emergence, Development and Trajectories of New Social Movements (NSMs) in Industrial Countries & Non-Post-Materialist Societies: The Case of Animal Protection Movement (APM) in Malaysia. By: Suzianah Nhazzla Ismail September 2017 Supervisors: Dr. Alasdair Cochrane (Primary) Dr. Maria Grasso (Secondary) Dissertation submitted to the University of Sheffield in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. ABSTRACT At present the vast majority of studies of new social movements (NSMs), such as the animal protection movement (APM), focus on post-industrial countries and post- materialist societies. According to NSM scholars, post-industrial countries offer a healthier environment for NSMs to thrive because these countries possess high levels of economic, physical and material security. However, little is known about the APMs in countries which are industrial, such as those found in South East Asia (SEA). Therefore, the thesis offers a novel empirical account of the APM in Malaysia; a NSM that exists in an industrial country that does not have a strong post-materialist society. The study is focused on understanding the emergence, development and trajectory of the APM in Malaysia. The study is concerned with factors such as the accessibility of political opportunities, the level of post-materialist values, the roles played by the long standing cultural beliefs and the types of resources available in Malaysia. The study finds that the APM Malaysia is surviving in a very perplexing environment. The movement is stymied as a result of operating in a country with: a moderately closed- state structure; low levels of post-materialist values; overpowering cultural beliefs and lack of resources. It is hoped that this study will be able to provide a new perspective and insight in the analysis of APMs in industrial countries and non-post-materialist societies in SEA, thus broadening the knowledge of NSMs. Keywords: new social movement (NSM), animal protection movement (APM), post-industrial countries, post-materialist societies, industrial countries, non-post-materialist societies. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my utmost gratitude to my first supervisor Dr. Alasdair Cochrane, for his endless guidance and support during my PhD journey at the University of Sheffield. His unabating enthusiasm and energy had driven and inspired me in my PhD research. He taught me how to scrutinise the challenges into as many different ways as possible and to look at them from different perspectives. His brilliant ideas and intense input had facilitated me in: planning the research; analysing the data; and accelerating the preparation of this thesis. He had been a wonderful thesis and research advisor, therefore I would like to thank him for encouraging my research and for allowing me to grow as a research scientist. My deepest gratitude goes to my family for their unflagging love and support throughout my life and PhD journey; this thesis is simply impossible without them. However, I am exceptionally indebted to my late mother, Juliah Talib, for her unconditional love, support and prayers. Her passing right after my confirmation review had pushed me to work harder in my doctoral study. She believed in me, hence it was my duty as her first daughter to not let her down and to make her proud. Dear mamma, because of you I am what I am today, thank you. I love you very much mamma, not a day passes by without you in my heart and mind. I would also like to thank my dearest partner for life and husband, Noriqram Mohd Nor, for his understanding, undivided attention and endless sacrifices in making sure that it was possible for me to complete my doctoral study here in the United Kingdom. Dear B, I can’t thank you enough for all of the encouragements that you had given me throughout this journey. I am so lucky to have you as my husband and you are the best and most understanding husband a wife could possibly have. I am grateful for your love, for your support, for your integrity and for you. Most importantly, I can’t picture life with anyone other than you, I love you very much. Last but not least, I would like to thank all of my friends for all their support and guidance over the last four years. Dear Lucy J. Parry and Meera Inglis, we did a lot together and thank you very much for becoming my proof-readers. I wish the both of you a lot of happiness and a bright future. Dear Melanie Montua, I cherish our 15- year-old friendship. I can’t thank you enough for always being there for me even though you are so far away. Dear Hartini Yahya, many thanks for being a good friend and a sister. Dear Aiman Rashid , Nor Izura Tukiman, Zulhelmi Zakaria, Wahida Mahmood and Haslinda Hashim, you all helped me a lot in many aspects. All of you had made my stay in the UK a lot easier. And finally, a special dedication goes out to Haslinda Balkesh, Khairolin Ismail, Syurina Shapiai and Nurul Niza Nasaruddin, this thesis would not have been possible without your friendship and continued support. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTERS & ITEMS PAGE NUMBERS Abstract Acknowledgements List of Graphs, Images & Tables I-IV List of Abbreviations V-VI Chapter 1: Introduction to the Research Undertaken 1.1 Introduction 1-3 1.2 Background Statement 3-4 1.3 Statement of the Problem 4 1.4 Research Objectives 4 1.5 Research Questions 5 1.6 Research Hypotheses 5 1.6.1 Hypothesis 1 5-7 1.6.2 Hypothesis 2 7-9 1.6.3 Hypothesis 3 9 1.7 Research Design 9-10 1.8 Theoretical Framework & Key Concepts 10 1.8.1 Social Movements (SMs) 10 1.8.2 Social Movement Organisations (SMOs) 10 1.8.3 New Social Movements (NSMs) 11 1.8.4 New Social Movement Theory 11 1.8.5 Political Opportunity 11-12 1.8.6 Resource Mobilisation Theory (RMT) 12 1.8.7 Framing Processes 12-13 1.9 Original Study & Significant Contribution 13-16 1.10 Conclusion 16-17 Chapter 2: Literature Review Part I: The Groundwork of Research Undertaken 2.1 Introduction 18 2.2 Theme I: The Historical Background of the Animal Protection Movement in Britain 19-25 2.3 Theme II: Debates on the Animal Protection Movement (APM) Ethics 25 2.3.1 Animal Rights School of Thought 26-27 2.3.2 Controversies in the Animal Rights School of Thought 27-28 2.3.3 Animal Welfare School of Thought 29 2.3.4 Controversies in the Animal Welfare School of Thought 29-30 2.3.5 Utilitarianism School of Thought and Its Debates 30-31 2.3.6 Abolitionist & Protectionist Schools of Thoughts 31-32 2.3.7 A Summary of the Debates on the Animal Protection Movement Ethics 33 2.4 Theme III: Animal Welfare Initiatives & Animal Protection Movement (APM) 2.4.1 Animals Act 1953 34-35 2.4.2 Animal Welfare Bill 2015 35-37 2.4.3 The Animal Welfare Strategic Plan (2012- 2020) 37-38 2.4.4 Fatwa Released by JAKIM on Spaying and Neutering Companion Animals 38 2.4.5 The Department of Veterinary Services 38-39 2.5 Theme IV: Animal Protection Movement (APM) in Malaysia: Its Nature, Objectives, Components & Activities 2.5.1 Nature & Objectives of the Animal Protection Movement (APM) in Malaysia 39 2.5.2 Examples of Animal Protection Organisations in the Animal Protection Movement (APM) in Malaysia 49-46 Chapter 2: Literature Review Part II: The Selected Conceptual Toolkit & Theoretical Approach 2.6 Introduction 47 2.7 Defining Social Movements (SMs) 47-49 2.8 Defining Social Movement Organisations (SMOs) 50-51 2.9 Defining New Social Movements (NSMs) 51-52 2.10 New Social Movement Theory & Its Main Theorists 52-55 2.11 Comparative Perspectives of Social Movements: Political Opportunity, Mobilising Structure & Framing Process 55-56 2.11.1 Political Opportunity Attribute 56-59 2.11.2 Mobilising Structure Attribute – Resource Mobilisation Theory (RMT) 59-60 2.11.3 Framing Process 60-61 2.12 Conclusion 61-62 Chapter 3: Research Methodology 3.1 Introduction 63 3.2 Research Design 63-66 3.3 Organisation of Study 66-68 3.4 Identifying Key Informants 68-69 3.5 Maintaining the Confidentiality of Key Informants 69-70 3.6 Data Collection & Data Analysis 70-71 3.7 Qualitative Research Method: Case Study 71-73 3.8 Qualitative Research Method: Semi Structured Interview 73-75 3.9 Qualitative Research Method: Participant Observation 75-76 3.10 Qualitative Research Method: Documentary Research 76-78 3.11 Methodological Challenges of the Study 78-80 3.12 Ethical Considerations 80-81 3.13 Conclusion 81-82 Chapter 4: Hypothesis I The Animal Protection Movement (APM) in Malaysia is Stymied as a Result of Malaysia’s Moderately Closed State Structure 4.1 Introduction 83 4.2 How do Political Opportunities Matter for Social Movements 83-85 4.3 Kitschelt’s Analytical Framework 85-86 4.3.1 The Number of Political Parties, Factions & Groups that Effectively Articulate Different Demands in Electoral Politics Influences 86 Openness 4.3.2 Openness Increases with the Capacity of Legislatures to Develop & Control Policies Independently of the Executive Branch 86-87 4.3.3 Patterns of Intermediation between Interest Groups & the Executive Branch are Another Element Shaping Political Openness 87 4.3.4 Political Openness Not Only Requires Opportunities for the Articulation of New Demands, but New Demands must Actually Find their Way into the Process of Framing Policy Compromises & Consensus 87-88 4.4 The Animal Protection Movement (APM) in Malaysia according to Kitschelt’s Analytical Framework 88 4.5 Malaysia’s State Structure 88-95 4.6 The Integration of Kitschelt’s Analytical Framework into Malaysia’s Political Structure 4.6.1 The Limited Number