Resisting Hollywood? A Comparative Study of British Colonial Screen Policies in the Interwar Pacific: Hong Kong, Singapore and New Zealand by David B. Newman M.F.A., Ohio University, 1993 M.A., Victoria University of Wellington, 1987 B.A., Victoria University of Wellington, 1985 Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Communication Faculty of Communication, Art and Technology © David Newman 2013 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY Spring 2013 Approval Name: David B. Newman Degree: Doctor of Philosophy Title of Thesis: Resisting Hollywood? A Comparative Study of British Colonial Screen Policies in the Interwar Pacific: Hong Kong, Singapore and New Zealand Examining Committee: Chair: Dr. Robert Anderson Professor Dr. Catherine Murray Senior Supervisor Professor Dr. Janet Wasko Supervisor Professor and Knight Chair of Communication Research University of Oregon Dr. Dal Yong Jin Supervisor Associate Professor Dr. Colin Browne Internal Examiner, Professor School of Contemporary Arts Dr. Richard Maltby External Examiner Matthew Flinders Distinguished Professor Flinders University, Adelaide Date Defended/Approved: April 10, 2013 ii Partial Copyright Licence Abstract Set against a background of imperialism, this study uses a comparative approach to investigate government policies toward, and interventions in, the motion picture industry prior to 1942 in three former British territories — Hong Kong, Singapore (Straits Settlements) and New Zealand. This study is broadly situated within new cinema history and is based on government and industry documents preserved in archives spanning several countries. Drawing upon political economy and media policy to inform the underlying narrative and analysis, the focus is explicitly on the development of the political and regulatory system governing the motion picture history in each polity. These developments defined the operational context and boundaries of the motion picture industry as a commercial and cultural institution, ultimately shaping the audience experience in each locality. The underlying political narrative in each locality is different. In Hong Kong, there was the lost opportunity of utilising local-language production to meet Imperial quota goals. Singapore presents the story of censorship and early attempts at multi-culturalism through social control. New Zealand events reveal a government attempting to use the motion picture industry for social control and to maintain a thoroughly British identity. What links the three cases together is the local governments’ struggle to balance satisfying the requirements of the Imperial government in London, and meeting the demands of both local audiences and of theatre owners dependent on Hollywood product. Each of these cases show the role which governments played in shaping the viewing experience for audiences, through explicit regulation such as censorship and cinema operating hours, and more hidden areas such as fire regulations, as well as the production and distribution of certain forms of motion picture. The study concludes that three broad policy imperatives explain the actions of governments in the motion picture industry: safety, both moral and physical; social control and development; and economic factors. The focus on the social-cultural context of the audience experience of cinema inherent in new cinema history is seen to provide an important dimension missing from political economy and its focus on structure and agency. Keywords: imperialism and colonial policy; motion pictures; new cinema history; comparative screen policy; political economy of film; New Zealand, Hong Kong, Singapore, British Malaya and Straits Settlements. iii Dedication This is dedicated to my family. First and foremost, my amazing wife and partner, Hien, for her love, patience and support as she has endured the challenges and long journey and challenges this project has taken. My two sons, Andrew and Jonathan, who have spent most of their lives with their Dad slowly progressing on this. And finally, my mother, who always thought New Zealand was too small a place for me, but passed away before this was completed, and my father who never lived to see me reach adulthood. I know both would be very proud of this achievement. iv Acknowledgements A work of this scope and magnitude is only possible with the assistance and support of many people and organisations over a number of years. I am very grateful for the significant support provided by so many during the course of the research and writing. Institutional support has been critical. Funding towards the costs of the many trips to archives in other countries were provided by a number of units within Simon Fraser University: the School of Communication; Faculty of Applied Science; Faculty of Communication, Art and Technology; Graduate Student Society; Dean of Graduate Studies; the International Research Scholarship and the President’s Research Stipend. Computing Canada provided research support with backup storage of the huge number of files and electronic archives on their supercomputer network outside of the earthquake- prone West Coast. Thankfully I never had to figure out how to retrieve them in the event of an earthquake. The staff in the many archives and libraries I visited were always efficient and helpful with my requests: Karl Magee in the Grierson Archives at the University of Stirling, Lisa Gray at the National Archives in College Park, Maryland, and the countless unnamed staff in Archives New Zealand, US National Archives in both College Park, Maryland and Washington, DC, the Library of Congress, Flinders University Library, Hocken Library at the University of Otago, Alexander Turnbull Library in the National Library of New Zealand, Public Records Office in Kew Gardens, London, the British Library, the New Zealand Film Archive, the Singapore National Archives, and the Public Records Office of Hong Kong. Not to forget Scott McKenzie and the team in the SFU Library Interloans, who found ways to borrow microfilms from libraries in other countries, as well as tracking down books and other materials from the period. Every request, no matter how obscure, was quickly filled, and I applaud their efforts on my behalf. Free accommodation helped my travel grants stretch further, and so I am very grateful for David & Shelley (and the kids) for sharing their home with me in Wellington, v Gabriel and Aisha in London, Alastair and Peti in Hong Kong, Mary and Paul in Dunedin, as well as Julia for the house-sitting opportunity during my extended London stay. A document of this size requires considerable formatting and attention to detail. My thanks to Joanie, the SFU Thesis Assistant, who took this from an earlier version of the thesis template and transformed it into its current state, fixing many problems in the process, and allowed me to continue using my preferred typeface. Your generosity of time is very much appreciated. Considerable gratitude and thanks got to my supervisory committee for the insightful comments, support and patience throughout the process. Professor Catherine Murray led the effort as my senior supervisor provided a myriad of ideas. Professor Janet Wasko and Dr. Dal Yong Jin provided important and valuable comments in the latter stages. Thanks also to Dr. Zoë Druick who was part of the committee in the early stages. Appreciation and thanks to Professor Richard Maltby of Flinders University and Professor Colin Browne from the School of Contemporary Arts at Simon Fraser University for consenting to be the examiners. Your careful reading, probing questions and insightful comments helped improve the final content and form of this work. Intellectual support in the writing process came from colleagues in the PhD programme in the School of Communication, particularly from Scott, Ben, Daniel, Darryl and Heather in the writing support group, as well as George who generously shared his office with me after I got kicked out of the one with the magnificent view out to the sunsets over Vancouver Island that I inhabited for a number of years. And last, but certainly not least, my family for the very substantial support, sacrifices, endurance and love of my family who were with me throughout on this journey: Jonathan, who has spent most of his life with his Dad working on this degree; Andrew, who got to see me on the occasional trips to D.C., and most importantly, Hien who put her own life and career on hold, endured food bank rations in the lean times, very little money and my prolonged absences while I pursued my obsession, took most of the parenting role with Jonathan, and finally proofreading this and asking incisive questions at the end. Your love and support through this long journey made it all possible. vi Table of Contents Approval .........................................................................................................ii Abstract ........................................................................................................iii Dedication ........................................................................................................iv Acknowledgements........................................................................................................ v Table of Contents ....................................................................................................... vii List of Figures ......................................................................................................