Living on the fringes of a protected area: Gonarezhou National Park (GNP) and the indigenous communities of South East Zimbabwe, 1934-2008 by Baxter Tavuyanago A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy (History) in the Department of Historical and Heritage Studies at the UNIVERSITY OF PRETORIA FACULTY OF HUMANITIES SUPERVISOR: PROFESSOR A. S. MLAMBO July 2016 i © University of Pretoria Abstract This study examines the responses of communities of south-eastern Zimbabwe to their eviction from the Gonarezhou National Park (GNP) and their forced settlement in the peripheral areas of the park. The thesis establishes that prior to their eviction, the people had created a utilitarian relationship with their fauna and flora which allowed responsible reaping of the forest’s products. It reveals that the introduction of a people-out conservation mantra forced the affected communities to become poachers, to emigrate from south-eastern Zimbabwe in large numbers to South Africa for greener pastures and, to fervently join militant politics of the 1960s and 1970s. These forms of protests put them at loggerheads with the colonial government. The study reveals that the independence government’s position on the inviolability of the country’s parks put the people and state on yet another level of confrontation as the communities had anticipated the restitution of their ancestral lands. The new government’s attempt to buy their favours by engaging them in a joint wildlife management project called CAMPFIRE only slightly relieved the pain. The land reform programme of the early 2000s, again, enabled them to recover a small part of their old Gonarezhou homeland. The local people opposed the government’s later attempt to create a transfrontier park with Mozambique and South Africa, arguing that it would further dislocate their lives. It is, therefore, the contention of this study that the establishment of the GNP created perpetual contestation by indigenous communities during the colonial and post-colonial periods. Key terms Conservation, contestation, eviction, fringe, Gonarezhou National Park, indigenous communities, poaching, protest, Shangane & wildlife. i © University of Pretoria Dedication This thesis is dedicated to my late young brother Abinomega who was tragically taken away in a horrific car accident on 15 September 2001. I know we would have celebrated the achievement together. You went too soon but I will always cherish the short time we shared Chibgwa. ii © University of Pretoria Acknowledgements Many people put considerable time and effort towards the fruition of this study. First and foremost, I would like to acknowledge the contribution made by my supervisor, Professor A. S. Mlambo in directing me in this research. I am, indeed, greatly indebted to him for painstakingly going through each draft chapter of the thesis and coming up with insightful comments on how to improve the texture of the work. I am, again, grateful to the Professor in his capacity as the Chair of the Department of Historical and Heritage Studies for linking me up with funders who offered me financial assistance for my field work. His Personal Assistant, Ms Zimkhitha Tsotso was always ready to assist whenever I visited the university. I also am indebted to the Department of Historical and Heritage Studies for organising a seminar at the commencement of my studies where I presented my raw ideas. The suggestions offered greatly assisted me in reflecting on the thrust of my study. Most of my field work was conducted through support from grants advanced by the University of Pretoria and affiliate organisations. I would like to thank the University’s Postgraduate Unit for the bursary offered during my years of study at the university. I would also like to thank the South African National Parks (SANParks) for another research grant received. Professor K. Harris sourced another research bursary for me from the Department of National Tourism (South Africa). I say thank you so much. I would also want to express my gratitude to my employer, the Great Zimbabwe University for granting me six months study leave to enable me to complete my studies. Many colleagues put a lot of their unpaid time in reviewing and editing my draft chapters. In particular are colleagues such as Dr. A. Dzimbanhete, Dr. F. Duri, Dr. O. Nyambi, Dr. J. Muzondidya, J. Hlongwana, T. G. Mpofu, J. Hita, P. Makuvire and K. Madlome. I would like to iii © University of Pretoria thank them for the quality advice they freely gave. My eighty two year-old father was not just a source of inspiration to my academic career but travelled with me into villages where I was conducting interviews. I certainly took full advantage of his geographical knowledge of my study area and his connections with prospective informants. He became one of my voluntary research assistants and I am most grateful to him for his support. To my Shangane research assistants, I say thank you for working with me in the field during the months of July and August 2014 in spite of your other pressing commitments. I would also like to express my sincere appreciation to institutions and individuals that facilitated this research. Among these are the Masvingo Provincial and Chiredzi District offices of the Ministry of Local Government, the National Archives of Zimbabwe staff, the Chiredzi Rural District Council, the Chiredzi-based Gaza Trust, the Department of Parks and Wildlife Authority, the Masvingo Mirror, the Masvingo Herald office, traditional and political leaders in the field of study and my informants in Matibi, Ndowoyo, Sangwe and Sengwe communal areas. I am, indeed, indebted to all the above. Last but not least, I would like to thank my family especially my wife Zvinake for her love and support during my entire study period. To my two boys Simbarashe and Ngonidzashe, I say bravo for your encouragement. Simbarashe, also a student at the University of Pretoria during my study tenure was my errand boy doing all sorts of chores for me at the university. Ngonidzashe would always mail me, ‘how far with the next chapter dad?’ Their support kept me going even during times when the task before me seemed Herculean. All said, I bear the full responsibility for the errors and inadequacies that may arise in this study and am solely responsible for the opinions expressed in this thesis. iv © University of Pretoria List of abbreviations ANC Assistant Native Commissioner APA African Purchase Area BSAC British South Africa Company CAMPFIRE Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources CBNRM Community Based Natural Resources Management CNC Chief Native Commissioner DC District Commissioner DPWLM Department of Parks and Wildlife Management ESAP Economic Structural Adjustment Programme EU European Union FRELIMO Front for the Liberation of Mozambique FTLRP Fast Track Land Reform Programme GLTFCA Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area GLTP Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park GGR Gonarezhou Game Reserve GNP Gonarezhou National Park GRC Gonakudzingwa Restriction Camp KNP Kruger National Park LAA Land Apportionment Act LNP Limpopo National Park MCC Mahenye Campfire Committee MDC Movement for Democratic Change NC Native Commissioner NGO Non-Governmental Organisation PA Protected Area v © University of Pretoria PEA Portuguese East Africa PV Protected Village NPWMA National Parks and Wildlife Management Authority RDC Rural District Council RENAMO Mozambique National Resistance Movement SADC Southern Africa Development Community SANParks South African National Parks SS Selous Scouts SVC Save Valley Conservancy TTL Tribal Trust Land USAID United States Agency for Development Corporation ZANLA Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army ZANU Zimbabwe African National Union ZANU (PF) Zimbabwe African National Union (Patriotic Front) ZAPU Zimbabwe African People’s Union vi © University of Pretoria Glossary of terms Colonial name New name Chibi Chivi Chipinge Chipinga Fort Victoria Masvingo Lundi Runde Melsetter Chimanimani Nuanetsi Mwenezi Rhodesia Zimbabwe Sabi Save Salisbury Harare Umtali Mutare Wankie Hwange vii © University of Pretoria TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract………………………………………………………………………….i Key terms………………………………………………………………………………………i Dedication………………………………………………………………………..ii Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………iii List of abbreviations…………………………………………………………….v Glossary of terms ………………………………………………………………..vii Table of contents………………………………………………………………...viii List of tables……………………………………………………………………..xiii List of maps……………………………………………………………………...xiv CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION……………………………………………....1 Historical background to the study…………………………………………….1 Aim and objectives of the study………………………………………………...7 Aim……………………………………………………………………………………………...7 Objectives………………………………………………………………………………………8 Statement of the problem……………………………………………………….8 Justification of the study………………………………………………………..10 Review of related literature…………………………………………………….14 The concept of national parks………………………………………………………………... 14 Borderland location of indigenous communities…………………………………………….20 Displacement of indigenous communities from park-designated areas…………………....26 People-park relations………………………………………………………………………….29 Research design and methodology……………………………………………………………38 Chapter outline………………………………………………………………………………...43 CHAPTER 2: THE LAND OF THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLE……………...46 Introduction……………………………………………………………………...46 The land………………………………………………………………………….47 viii © University of Pretoria The peopling of south-eastern